Psychology Unit 3 (part 1 & 2)

Learning

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together, either through classical conditioning (two stimuli) or operant conditioning (response and consequence).

Cognitive learning

The acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning where one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should study behavior without reference to mental processes.

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned response (UR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Conditioned response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure where a conditioned stimulus in one experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus does not follow the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that have not been associated with it.

John Watson

Created behaviorism and conducted the 'Little Albert' experiment to demonstrate classical conditioning in humans.

Preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value, such as taste and nausea.

Taste aversion response

A response that can occur with just one bad experience, such as food poisoning.

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior. Behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, while behavior that is punished is prone to happen less

Law of effect

Edward Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Operant chamber (Skinner Box)

A chamber used in research that contains a bar or key to manipulate for obtaining reinforcers.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure where reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired behavior.

Reinforcement

Any event in operant conditioning that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfies a biological need.

Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs, encouraging rapid learning.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time, leading to greater resistance to extinction.

Fixed-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows through administering an undesirable consequence or withdrawing a desirable one.

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.

Latent learning

Learning that becomes apparent only when there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Overjustification effect

When already justifiable activities become overjustified by an added reward, thereby reducing intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation

The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic motivation

The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Observational learning

Learning by observing others.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Pro-social behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

Antisocial behavior

Negative, destructive, unhelpful behavior.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to observe its effects on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Placenta

transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to fetus and blocks harmful substances

teratogens

substances that pass through the placenta

fetal alcohol syndrome

the effects of alcohol use by the mother aer visible; physical and cognitive functions are impaired

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch and open their mouth

sucking

when babies find nipple, bottle

startled

arms/legs spread, followed by fist clenching and loud crying

grasping

babies will grasp finger or objects if you put it in their hands

habituation in babies

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilate

we interpret things in terms of our current understanding

accomodate

adjusting our schemas to take into account new experiences

sensorimotor stage

babies learn about the world through their senses and movement

object permanence

out of sight, out of mind

pre operational stage

children learn to use language but can't comprehend the mental operation of concrete logic

conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

egocentric

child can't take another's POV

concrete operational stage

children can start thinking logically

formal operational

people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

scaffold

Lev Vygotsky, framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

stranger anxiety

infants may greet strangers by crying or reaching for familiar caregivers

attachment

an emotional tie with another person

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life not humans

strange situation

a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed

secure attachment

child is comfortable to explore with the caregivers presence; displays temporary distress when the caregiver leaves and comfort in their return

insecure attachment

child displays either clinging or avoidant attachment

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Authoritarian

parents are imposing rules and expect obedience (coercive/threatening)

Permissive parenting

parents are unrestrained, making few demands, few limits, and little punishments

Negligent

parents are uninvolved, neither demanding nor responsive; they're careless, inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with their children.

Authoritative

parents are confrontative, both demanding and responsive.;they exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.

gender

attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex

sex

the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females

intersex

possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

gender roles

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females

gender identity

personal sense of being male, female, neither or both regardless of sex

androgyngy

displaying male and female traits

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

identity

consistent/comfortable sense of self

Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)

infants develop a sense of basic trust if needs are dependently met

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood)

physical independence; toddlers will do things for themselves, or doubt their abilities

Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool)

mental independence; children initiate tasks/plans or feel guilty about their efforts of independence

Competence vs. Inferiority (Elementary)

children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

teens refine their sense of self and try to figure out who they are, or they get confused

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)

struggle to find close relationships or love, if not they feel isolated

Generatively vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)

discover a sense of contributing to the world, or feel a lack of purpose

Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)

reflecting on life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults