A-Level History - Britain 1900-51 - Political Issues 1900-14

What was life like in Britain in 1900? - Standard of living

- Houses were overcrowded and cramped (eg. Crown Court, Stepney, East London was condemned as unfit for habitation in 1911, housed 16 families in 5 houses, and only had 2 toilets)

- North East, over 36% of people had more than 2 people in a room

- Working class families spent up to 1/3 of income on rent

- Promotion for better sanitation but was difficult to implement any reforms

What was life like in Britain in 1900? - Health issues

- No national health service, doctors visits barely affordable (many had burial insurance)

- Diet was poor, malnutrition was common

- High infant mortality rate (1 in 6 infants died, 1 in 5 died before adulthood)

What was life like in Britain in 1900? - Leisure

- Upper classes had lots available - music lessons, languages, sports like tennis and rugby

- Working classes had very little - men could play football or go to the pub, women had nothing except maybe sewing

What was life like in Britain in 1900? - Role of women

- Most women didn't work unless necessary (seen as shameful)

- Women who did work paid much less than men, and worked in "female" jobs such as domestic service (1.7 million women)

- Divorce was an option but was expensive and frowned upon

- Upper class women married off, could vote in local elections

What was life like in Britain in 1900? - Class differences

- Lower class families were bigger, over 20% had more than 4 children

- Widespread poverty in lower classes (Rowntree report)

- Upper class men earned money off their workers (very stereotypical capitalist structure)

- Upper classes generally lived very lavishly, with decadent decoration in houses etc.

- Growth of middle class as a result of the industrial revolution

What were the findings in the Rowntree report? (1899-1901)

- 30% of people in York lived in poverty

- Identified the main causes of poverty as illness, unemployment and age (of the chief wage earner)

- Only 50% of chief wage earners were in regular work, but most of these were paid badly (not enough to sustain healthy living)

- Poverty was widespread, idea of the "poverty cycle" (couldn't escape the cycle of poverty)

What was the role of the House of Commons in 1900?

- Held MPs in established political parties

- People could switch between parties

- Majority party had the most power - could go 7 years without calling an election

- Seats could be gained by men owning land at values of £5 or above (mostly middle and upper classes)

- Unpaid

What was the role of the House of Lords in 1900?

- Nearly all hereditary peers (dukes, earls, bishops etc.)

- Most were land-owning upper classes

- Not all members of political parties (but beliefs tended to align with conservative values)

- Could veto any bills that were passed through they didn't approve of

What were the two main political parties in 1900?

Conservatives (unionists) and Liberals

What were the key beliefs of the Conservative party in 1900?

- Capitalism (right-wing)

- Maintaining tradition and existing institutions (the church)

- Preserving the British empire

- Aristocracy

What was the political standpoint of the Conservatives in 1900?

- Led by Lord Salisbury (very respected)

- Dominant force, had held government since 1886

What were the key beliefs of the Liberal party in 1900?

- Centre-ist

- Working class political rights

- Lack of government interference

- Big on reform

- Quite diverse in beliefs

- Free trade

What were some of the smaller parties that had been combined into the Liberal party?

- The Whig Party - supportive of reform, but generally quite conservative

- The Peelites - reforming the government but still quite conservative, supporters of Sir Robert Peel MP

- The Independent Radicals - loosely associated with radical ideas

- The Non-Conformists - Protestants but not Anglican, broadly supported the Whigs and Radicals

- The Chartists - radical group that advocated for workers rights (from a national movement 1830s to the end of the 1840s)

What was the political standpoint of the Liberals in 1900?

- Tensions between different divisions in the party over issues such as Home Rule in Ireland and the necessity of the British empire

- Led by Campbell-Bannerman, had had 3 leaders since holding a majority government in 1880

- Growth of "New Liberalism" in more radical members of the party, who encouraged state intervention in tackling inequality

Briefly describe the Boer War (reasons why it was fought, where, when, who won etc.)

- Fought between the British empire and two Boer states (the South African Republic and the Orange Free State) over the discovery of diamonds and gold in the Boer states

- 11th Oct 1899 to 31st May 1902

- British victory

- Popular at first but rapidly became very unpopular (seen as greedy and cruel)

- First instances of concentration camps used on villagers (mostly women and children)

What was the issue of Chinese slavery following the Boer war?

- South Africans didn't want to work in the mines following the war so the British imported Chinese workers as cheap labour

- In May 1904, 10,000 Chinese workers were recruited

- By 1908, there were 100,000 workers

- The conditions were extremely poor however, and created a very bad image for the conservatives and in how the British empire was viewed by many people

What were the results of the 1900 election?

Conservative victory - 402 MPs (majority), but only had a slender lead in votes

Liberals - 183

Labour - 2

Irish Nationalists - 85

What is a "khaki election" and why is the 1900 election called this?

"Khaki election" - one which is heavily influenced by wartime or post-war sentiment

This election can be referred to as such as it was at the beginning of the Boer war which was still popular at this stage, and as it was started by the Conservatives, led to many votes in their favour

Who were the main contenders for succession to the Conservative leadership in 1902 following Lord Salisbury's resignation, and who won?

Arthur Balfour and Joseph Chamberlain - Balfour emerged as leader due to Chamberlain's controversial tariff reform policy

What is tariff reform and who supported it?

Tariff reform, also called "protectionism" and "imperial preference", is the economic theory that the best way to protect domestically produced products is to introduce taxes om imported goods (in this case, those that had been imported from outside of the British empire)

Championed in Britain by Joseph Chamberlain MP

What are the advantages of tariff reform?

- Increased domestic sales

- Encourage British industry (ie. taxes would make more people buy from British companies)

- Money raised can be used to fund social reforms and modernise British industry

What are the disadvantages of tariff reform?

- Certain goods could only be imported so would make them inaccessible

- Difficult to sell the idea to the working classes who would be impacted

- (For the Conservatives) would unite the Liberal party

- Risked dividing the conservative party

How did tariff reform divide the Conservative party?

Split into two:

- One side supported Joseph Chamberlain and his imperial preference tariff reform system (created the Tariff Reform League in 1903)

- The other side supported free trade (created the Unionist Free Food League in retalliation)

NB - Balfour did not support tariff reform, but outwardly didn't show support for either side as not to divide the party further

Name and evaluate Balfour's main social policies (acts of parliament)

- Education Act 1902 - funding for local schools from local rates & increased the school leaving age to 12. Allowed more schools to be built and more secondary education, but some religious groups didn't like the increased taxes going to other groups

- Licensing Act 1904 - reduced the number of pubs in an effort to reduce alcohol consumption, landlords compensated, rejected by non-conformists and the working class

What was the significance of the Taff Vale Case (1901), and what did it mean for Balfour's government?

A railway company sued its workers for damage to railways during strike action regarding higher wages. The company won, which was good for the business owners, but upset the working class as it effectively prevented any strike action from happening over fear of action being brought against them and led to a growth in support for Labour and decrease in support for the Conservatives.

Why did Balfour resign in 1905?

- Conservative divisions over tariff reform

- He wanted to force the Liberals into power as this would show them to be weak and divided and make the conservatives look better following their mistakes

Why did Balfour think that the Liberal party was divided in 1905?

Public clashes between Liberal leaders Campbell-Bannerman and Lord Roseberry over Irish Home Rule

What were the results of the 1906 General Election?

Liberals - 400 (majority government)

Conservatives/Unionists - 157 (lost 245 seats)

Labour - 52

Irish National Party - 83

Reasons for the 1906 Liberal victory - Weakness or division

- Repeated Conservative mistakes

- Balfour's weak leadership

- Conservative divisions over tariff reform

Reasons for the 1906 Liberal victory - Short term factors/ Election campaign

- Had respected leaders and members such as Campbell-Bannerman and Asquith

- Shortly before the election new reports about the Chinese immigrant workers in South Africa emerged further discrediting the Conservatives

Reasons for the 1906 Liberal victory - Long term factors

- Non-conformists upset by Licensing act 1904 and Education act

- Idea of "new liberalism" popular as it promoted welfare improvements

- Vast unpopularity of tariff reform put the Conservatives in an unfavourable light

Define "Marxism"

Political and economic philosophy of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They believed that history is the result of a class conflict that will end with the triumph of the industrial proletariat (middle and upper class) over the bourgeoisie (working class), resulting in a communist society.

Define socialism

A system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls the means of production. Food, goods, profits and services would be divided fairly between the population

Name the political groups that influenced the formation of the Labour party.

- The SDF (social democratic foundation) - a marxist group that promoted revolution

- The Fabians - middle class intellectuals who favoured developing a socialist society through reforms in the current parliamentary system (prominent members include Sidney Webb and George Bernard Shaw)

- The Socialist League - offshoot of SDF founded by William Morris

Who were the ILP (Independent Labour Party)?

- Founded in 1893 by Kier Hardie

- Based on three important sources of influence:

1. Radical liberalism - significant change to existing social system to benefit the workers

2. Trade unionism

3. Nonconformity

- Peak membership in 1895 of 35,000

How was the LRC (Labour Representation Committee) formed?

- In a TUC meeting in 1900

- Committee established to work towards the formation of a "distinct Labour group in Parliament)

- Included representatives from the ILP, Fabians, and SDF

- NB - "The Labour party" name hadn't been adopted at this stage, but it was essentially the formation of the party in everything but name

What was the pact between Labour and the Liberals for the 1906 election?

The "Lib-Lab" pact - an agreement between the two to avoid running candidates against each other in constituencies where a split vote between them may result in the election of a Conservative candidate.

How did the 1901 Taff Vale judgement benefit the Labour party?

- Unions were unhappy with the judgement and those who were unsure of who to support quickly aligned with the Labour party who they saw to represent their beliefs

- 127 unions joined the LRC as a direct result of the judgement, lifting total membership from 353,000 to 847,000

When was the name the "Labour Party" adopted?

1906

How effective was the Labour party 1906-14? - Successes

- Trade Disputes Act 1906, overturned Taff Vale judgement (Labour influence)

- Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906, brought forward by a Labour MP in a Private Members Bill

- Alliances with Liberals gave them a reasonable amount of influence in Parliament and held seats

How effective was the Labour party 1906-14? - Failures

- Decrease in seats between 1906-1914

- Osbourne Judgement banned trade unions from funding political parties (direct attack)

- Didn't have enough power to make substantial changes

- Lack of commitment to socialism

- Still needed Liberal support to get seats in Parliament (Lib-Lab pact)

Challenges faced by the trade unions - 1901 Taff Vale Judgement

- Set precedent Trade Unions could be sued for workers going on strike

- Effectively banned strike action

- Led to decreased Conservative support

Challenges faced by the trade unions - 1906 Trade Disputes Act

- Reversed the Taff Vale judgement

- Protected the rights of trade unions

- Growth of support for the Labour Party

- Increased trade union influence

Challenges faced by the trade unions - 1909 Osbourne Judgement

- Banned trade unions from funding political parties

- Harmed the Labour Party greatly

Challenges faced by the trade unions - Strike action (reasons)

Caused by a wide range of factors:

- The value of "real wages" was gradually falling owing to increases in the cost of living

- From 1910 there was a fall in the levels of unemployment which made many workers more willing to confront employers

- Prices rose steeply 1911-12

- The middle and upper classes were actually improving their position leading to increased working class bitterness

Challenges faced by the trade unions - Strike action (examples)

- 1910 - South Wales - Strikes regarding Miners pay, resulted in violence

- 1911 - Tonypandy, South Wales - rioting led to a man's death, required army units to be drafted in

- 1911 - Seamen's Union on strike caused riots

- 1912 - Mining strike demanding a national minimum wage, with others among dock workers and transport workers

- 1913 - Metal work industries in the Midlands and transport workers in Dublin

How many people were members of trade unions?

- By 1910, around 17% of workers were in trade unions

- By 1914, risen to 25%

- Ride in female membership - in 1904 there was only 126,000 women trade union members, by 1913 there were 431,000

Who replaced Campbell-Bannerman as leader of the Liberals in 1908 following his death?

Asquith

What was the constitutional crisis?

It concerned the powers of the House of Lords to veto any bills that passed through - the issue was highlighted when they rejected multiple bills from the Liberal government as they were majority Conservative

What was the "Disraeli Doctrine" and what issues did it create for the Lords under the Liberal government?

Argument that the Lords should only use its veto power to amend bills in certain circumstances:

- When opinion in Commons is deeply divided and had only passed with a small majority

- Public opinion was against the protocol

- The issue would result in such fundamental change it needed a general election to be passed

Created an issue as the Liberals had a huge majority so the Lords wouldn't be able to apply the doctrine. Upon the Conservative failure, Balfour decided to use the Lords to stop Liberal bills, by selecting and applying the doctrine carefully and only in specific circumstances

Give examples of Liberal bills that the House of Lords vetoed before 1911.

- 1906 Education bill to change the ways the churches could control/run schools

- Bill to end plural voting

- Bill aimed at further restricting the sale and consumption of alcohol

Why did Campbell-Bannerman do little to tackle the issue at this point?

- Despite having lots of Commons support to limit the Lords powers, there was no real way of implementing it - the Lords would just veto any act that came through

- The Liberals were also on unsteady political ground at the time so didn't want to risk their position

Who was the Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1909?

David Lloyd George

What was proposed in the 1909 "People's Budget"?

- Raised income tax on highest earners (on incomes over £3000 pa and £5000 pa)

- Increased duties on spirits, tobacco, liquor licenses and stamp duties

- Increased death duties on estates valued between £5000 to £1 million

- Introduced land taxes on the increased value of land

- Set up a road maintenance fund by taxing petrol and introducing licenses for motor vehicles

- Introduce child allowances of £10 a year for children under, payable to families with an annual income of less than £500

Why was the 1909 People's Budget so controversial within Parliament?

It heavily impacted the upper and middle classes regarding taxation, who were all very unhappy with the amounts they'd be paying more, especially as they would not be the ones benefitting from it

What was the result of the 1910 election (January)?

Liberals - 275 (minority government)

Conservatives - 273

Labour - 40

Irish Nationalists - 82

What was the result of the 1910 election (December), and why was it called?

Liberals - 272 (minority government with Labour and IN support)

Conservatives - 272

Irish Nationalists - 84

Labour - 42

Called over the issue of the powers held by the House of Lords

How was the Parliament Bill 1911 passed?

Following the December election in 1910, Asquith effectively had a majority with the support promised by INs and Labour, so had the authority to ask the King to create new Liberal peers if necessary to get legislation approved. The Lords abhorred this, so allowed the act to pass

What did the Parliament Bill 1911 do?

Disallowed the Lords to outright reject bills - they could only veto or delay legislation for up to 2 years, couldn't debate on issues regarding money, and made elections compulsory for every 5 years

Negative consequences of the constitutional crisis

- Chief victim was Balfour who had to fight a campaign he didn't want - led to him stepping down as leader of the Conservatives in favour of Bonar Law

- Conservatives lost their widespread control over Parliament

- Cost the Liberals their overall majority which exposed them to the demands of the Irish Nationalists (had committed to home rule for 20 years though)

Positive consequences of the constitutional crisis

- Reputation of Liberal leaders Asquith and Lloyd George enhanced

- Liberals now able to pass legislation much easier and, in theory, for public benefit as apposed to political advantage

- More frequent voting (stronger democracy)

Background of the Women's suffrage movement - Political rights

- There had been some social breakthroughs during the 1800s, including young women entering clerical roles

- In 1869, women could vote in municipal borough elections (had to own a certain value in land), be elected to school boards from 1870 and vote in county council elections from 1889 (but couldn't stand as a candidate)

- By 1900, 1 million women registered to vote

Background of the Women's suffrage movement - Education

- 1870, education ages 5-10 compulsory (girls curriculum still focused around cooking, housework etc.)

- Upper class girls taught at home, less available for lower classes

- 1840s some London universities offered higher education for women, could get degrees from 1878

- Increasing literacy rates

Background of the Women's suffrage movement - Legal rights

- Once married, women became their husband's possession (could beat & rape her without fear of prosecution - 1891 ruling that they couldn't imprison their wives to prevent them from escaping)

- From 1839, women could claim custody of children under 7 (1873 - raised to 16)

- For divorce, women had to prove desertion, rape, bigamy etc.

- 1857, men couldn't claim women's earnings in divorce

Background of the Women's suffrage movement - Famous/inspiring women

- Increasing amounts of feminist literature - Charlotte Bronte (Jane Eyre), Louisa May Alcott (Little Women), Jane Austen (Pride and Prejudice)

- Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole helped in the Crimean war

- Elizabeth Garrett Anderson was the first female doctor in the UK

Who were the NSWS?

- National Society for Women's Suffrage

- Founded in 1868, the first of the women's suffrage groups

- Fused with other suffrage societies by the late 1800s

Who were the NUWSS?

- National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies

- Formed in 1897 by Millicent Fawcett

- Favoured peaceful campaigning strategies

- Divided in who wanted to campaign for equal voting rights as men, and who wanted to campaign for full voting rights to everyone over 21 years old

- Called "suffragists"

Give examples of how the NUWSS campaigned

Campaigning through the parliamentary system (lobbying MPs), meetings, pamphlets, propaganda

Who were the WSPU?

- Women's Social and Political Union

- Formed in 1903 by Emmeline (Emily) Pankhurst

- Favoured militant campaigning strategies

- Some connections with supporters in the ILP/Labour party

- Believed in political equality with men

- Called "suffragettes"

Give examples of how the WSPU campaigned

- Rioting, setting lampposts on fire, chaining to railings, hunger strikes in prisons, protests and demonstrations, smashed windows, bombed Lloyd George's house

- Protests included "Black Friday" outside parliament

- Emily Davison threw herself in front of the king's horse at the 1913 Derby

How did the 1906 Liberal government respond to the suffrage movement?

- Ignored it

- Increased militancy meant their priority was to control it rather than consider demands

- Resorted to arresting protestors, force feeding those on hunger strike and using force to "subdue" them

- "Black Friday" demonstration - protest outside parliament turned violent, up to 200 women assaulted

- Government spied on women perceived as threats

What was the 1910 Conciliation bill?

- Proposed enfranchisement of women based on their marital status and property holdings (around 8% of women)

- Failed as Asquith didn't support it, and other Liberal politicians such as Lloyd George didn't want to be seen as giving into violence

What was the Cat and Mouse Act 1913?

An expedient under which women on hunger strike were released and then rearrested to attempt to control the situation

Why wasn't female suffrage granted by 1914?

- Prominent government ministers opposed women's suffrage on principle (eg. Asquith)

- Increased militancy put them in a difficult situation where they didn't want to be seen as giving into the suffragettes violence

- Too much controversy over the issue, and the Liberals didn't want to compromise their votes at the next election

- Liberals were concerned women would vote for Conservatives (more traditional)

Liberal government's handling of the issue of women's suffrage - handled it well

- Giving in would have promoted more violence

- Local Government Act 1894 showed a slow progression towards female suffrage

- Asquith had tried to work with the WSPU and NUWSS

Liberal government's handling of the issue of women's suffrage - handled it badly

- Cat and Mouse Act 1913 - very controversial

- Proposal of the Men's Franchise Bill in 1910 increased unrest

- Banned women from attending Liberal meetings which cut off a key means for peaceful protest

- Sexual assault in the Black Friday protest seen as cruel and inhumane

Background to the campaign for Irish Home Rule

- Union with Ireland established in 1801 - England predominantly Protestant, Ireland mainly Catholic excluding the six counties of Ulster

- 1845-51 - Irish Potato Famine, 1 million died from starvation, 2 million emigrated (British government failed to act)

- Many British owners of Irish land were absent, and although they had some increased tenancy rights to protect them it was still an issue (Lord Salisbury's campaign to get the Irish to buy back land from the British met with limited success)

- Population felt great resentment to the British government

- Irish National Party established, led by John Redmond, gained seats in Parliament

- HoL rejected Home Rule Bills in 1886 and 1893

- Held the balance of power in 1910 as the Liberals did not hold a majority

Irish nationalist groups - The Labour Movement

- Headed by James Connolly in 1912

- Wanted Ireland to reach the level of industrialisation needed for a socialist state to be established (prevented by Britain keeping Ireland mainly agricultural)

- Aimed for a socialist worker's republic, connected to the Irish TUC

- Political force for independence

Irish nationalist groups - Sinn Fein

- Founded by Arthur Griffiths in 1905

- Opposed Connolly and the Labour Movement

- Believed in peaceful resistance where a voluntary parliament would be set up in Ireland in defiance of the British government to be equal in status (same tactic used by Hungary and Austria in 1860s)

- Didn't want socialism - wanted to create an Irish Republic, where capitalism could flourish to benefit the people

Irish nationalist groups - Irish Republican Brotherhood

- No clear defined political philosophy but wanted a violent overthrow of the British government (not Marxist)

What did the existence of so many Irish nationalist groups mean for the Irish National Party?

The Irish Nationalist Party faced little opposition to it's domination of Irish Politics

What was the impact of the Constitutional Crisis on Ireland?

In the December election of 1910, the Liberals and Conservatives were both tied on 272 seats, meaning the INP, with 82 seats, held the balance of power, which put Home Rule to the forefront of the political agenda. Additionally, the Lords had been the ones to continually reject Home Rule, so this meant should the bill pass parliament, it could be made into legislation

What was the main issue in creating a fair and accepted Home Rule Bill?

The six protestant regions of Ulster didn't want to be part of an independent Ireland, but instead wanted to remain as part of Britain. The Irish Nationalist parties wanted Ireland to be united as a whole, however, which created a problem in the fact that neither side would easily be satisfied

What was the Third Home Rule Bill 1912?

- Created an Irish Parliament with an elected House of Commons and a nominated upper chamber called the Senate with limited powers (especially regarding finance)

- 42 Irish MPs to still sit in Westminster

- Ulster included in the Home Rule Parliament

Reaction to the Third Home Rule Bill - The British government

- Bonar Law took an extreme stance in his disagreement with the bill, wanting to protect Ulster, and suggested military intervention in Ireland

- Asquith called Bonar Law "reckless" for his comments

- Frustration within the Liberals at the Lords constant rejection of the bill

- Banned any arms exports to Ireland over fears of rising militancy

Reaction to the Third Home Rule Bill - Irish Nationalists

- Barely accepted, only as a starting point for future progress

- Redmond eventually agreed to exclude Ulster from home rule provisionally (disputed and divided within the party)

Reaction to the Third Home Rule Bill - Ulster unionists

- Unacceptable as Ulster was included within the Home Rule parliament

- Sir Edward Carson (a leader in Ulster) drew up a petition refusing the proposed parliament in the bill, receiving 47,000 signatures

- Set up the Ulster Volunteer Force of 100,000 men, which provoked the Irish National Volunteers, who merged with the Irish National Brotherhood, and brought about fears of an Irish civil war

How was the conflict over the bill solved?

Redmond eventually agreed to accept the exclusion of Ulster for a temporary period (initially 3 years, then doubled to 6). Carson rejected this

What was the Curragh Mutiny?

- Officers in Ulster were unofficially given permission to leave Ulster temporarily

- There were rumours that the government was going to arrest the Ulster leaders, which the army objected to

- 58 of the officers in Ulster resigned in protest to these orders, meaning the government was forced to conciliate with the rebels

- Secretary of State for War, Jack Seely, was forced to resign

- Ulster Volunteer army armed in fear of attack, but as none came, emerged even stronger than before

- Both sides now were receiving weapons, heightening tensions on both sides