AP world history: AP exam review (the whole course)

Unit 1:

• Several large empires emerged around the world. Large empires began to revive in the world, most prominent was the Song Dynasty in China. Similarly, the Mayans, an earlier empire, influenced the Aztecs' rise. There were two centers of great intellectual achievement, Baghdad and Spain, which reflected emphasis on learning in the Islamic world.

• Trade across the Sahara resulted in the West African empires of Ghana and Mali. These flourished due to the trans-Saharan trade routes facilitating the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas, leading to increased wealth and power for these kingdoms.

• 1200-1450 - emergence of the Mongols (a group of nomads from Asia who conquered lands from Europe to the Pacific Ocean, creating the largest land empire).

• In China, they practiced Confucian teaching (which was the idea of hierarchies, like filial piety). These teachings were central to the function of the government, shaping social classes and the family system. Also, the industrialization of China began to spread, like their use of coal-powered machinery, which therefore increased productivity.

  - Song Dynasty: 960- 1279 BC, pastoralists invaded their lands and set up their empire. China under the Song dynasty was prosperous, and the arts flourished.

  - Imperial Bureaucracy: This was a vast organization that appointed officials who carried out the emperor’s orders across China.

• Tang Dynasty: 618- 907 AD, known for its cultural and economic prosperity, the Tang Dynasty expanded its territory and influence, establishing the foundation for later dynasties through innovations in governance and the arts.

  • Meritocracy: This system allowed individuals to achieve positions of power based on their talents and abilities rather than their social status, which impacted the structure of the imperial bureaucracy.

  • Grand Canal: An extensive waterway that facilitated trade and transportation between north and south China, contributing to the economic development of the dynasties and enhancing cultural exchanges.

  • Agricultural productivity: During this period, advancements in farming techniques, such as the introduction of new technologies and crop varieties (champa rice!!), led to significant increases in food production, ultimately supporting population growth and urbanization.

  • Also, you should know China’s relationship to coal (which made mass production of cast-iron goods), and they learned they could make steel. They often used steel to make infrastructure and religious items (pagodas and Buddhist) also contributed to the abundance of food due to all the agricultural equipment.

  • Know footbinding! (Small broken feet = wealthy and cool)

  • Know proto-industrialization (Economic changes where people in rural areas would make more than they could sell).

  • Gunpowder!

  • Invented paper and printing.

• Buddhism came to China through the Silk Road

• combined with Taoism to create Zen Buddhism

• Neo-Confucianism rose in Song China as a response to the rise of Buddhism

  Tributary System:

• China recognized they weren’t going to succeed with just domestic production, so they went to Japan and Korea, and they asked them to pay tribute so that China wouldn’t try to invade them.

• South & Southeast Asia:

  • Spread of hinduism and buddhism

  • This region was heavily influenced by the trade relationship it had with surrounding regions

  • Islam greatly influenced the region

  • spread of religion through trade routes

  • Merchants are the ones responsible for bringing Islam to Southeast Asia

    - Some Hindus converted to Islam to escape the caste system

  • Sufism is a minority sect of Islam

  • Bhakti is a minority movement of Hinduism

  • Buddhist monasticism is a minority within Buddhism

  • The lower caste formed these movements.

• Dar-al Islam:

• 1200-1450, Dar-al Islam means everything Islam touches, southwest Asia(Middle East), the strongest religion at this time, Islam connects to China through the Silk Road, and that’s how we get a lot of interaction between the two. The following groups established their own Muslim empires after attacking and destroying the once unified Abbasid Caliphate.

• Mamluk Empire:

  • Turkish slaves working in Egypt who attacked and seized control of the Egyptian government created a Muslim empire across North Africa known as the Mamluk Sultanate.

  • The Abbasid Caliphate breaks up, and it breaks up into different sections. (Caliphate = empire btw).

  • The muslim world this time is very welcoming, which allows them to thrive and be tolerant of other religions.

  • The Islamic world had golden ages, advancements in art, science, medicine, literature, wealthiest places in the world.

  Seljuk Turks:

  • Muslim Turks who captured parts of Central Asia and the Middle East, including Baghdad. Also, they’re cultural ancestors of the Western Turks.

  • The target of the first crusade.

  • The empire weakened during the first two crusades and finally crumbled during the Mongol invasions.

  Innovations:

  • Nasiral-Din al-Tusi, an Islamic scholar who set the footprint for trigonometry.

  • A’ishah al-Ba’uniyyah, the most prolific female muslim writer.

  Cultural Continuities:

  1. Translated Greek classics into Arabic

  2. Studied math in India

  3. Made paper from China

  • The concept of zero was developed in India and made its way into other regions. The Muslim world loved learning and education, and thought it would lead to more innovation. Mongols came and drastically changed things by facilitating the exchange of ideas and goods along the Silk Roads, effectively linking the East and West and fostering a new era of cultural and intellectual growth.

    Americas:

  • Aztecs(Mexica: 13th century

  • By 1434, the Aztecs, a Mesoamerican society, dominated the valley by conquering other city-states and creating a tribute empire. Had the capital city of Tenochtitlan. Rulers were considered gods on earth, giving them lots of power. They believed in the idea of human sacrifice. They made agricultural developments: floating gardens, chinampas farms. Floating gardens provided the Aztecs with nutrition.

    Inca Empire:

  • Centered around Lake Titicaca in Peru, and was highly centralized with a ruler over 4 provinces. They created a tribute empire (Mit’a system) where they forced people to work for them as a tax. Advanced irrigation made the Inca skilled farmers (use of terrace farming – farming into the side of a mountain, and Waru Waru irrigation systems).

  • Quipu was used for record keeping, storytelling, counting, and as a calendar.

    Mayans:

  • They were decentralized, with many Maya city-states spread out in the region. They were known for art, architecture, calendar, and an astronomical system.

  Other Tribes in the Americas:

  • Spread throughout the Americas, tribes were varied depending on their environment (Cahokia and Mesa Verde).

  • Most empires were weakened by European contact (disease and conquering).

  Africa:

  • The Bantu people spread not only their language, but also their knowledge of metalwork and agriculture throughout Africa. Africa was largely weak, with no tax systems or large building projects. Islam slowly spread into Africa through missionaries.

  • Syncretism- combining multiple religions.

    Trans-Saharan Trade:

  • Trade was improved by the use of camels and the camel saddle, and caravans. Caravans facilitated trade.

  • Trade allowed empires to grow along the network through importing their goods and trading with other kingdoms.

  • Start of a gold-salt trade between West Africa (gold) and North Africa (salt).

    West African Empires - Ghana, Mali, and Songhai:

  • Became Islamic to grow political power. Traded with other Muslim nations (thanks to Mansa Musa(Connected the west and north Africa, and spread Islam in West Africa). (Mali) & Sonni Ali (Songhai)). Set up Tributary systems on a small scale.

  Central Africa:

  • Islam did not spread to this region. It was difficult to travel here, and states formed more slowly without the Islamic influence.

  Great Zimbabwe:

  • Large and non-Islamic. Dominated African gold and trade on coastal ports in the Indian Ocean network. Built a great wall for protection. Additionally, the kingdom's wealth came from cattle ranching and agriculture, which supported its extensive trade relations with merchants from the Swahili Coast.

  • The spread of Islam opened up Africa to global trade, but most of Africa developed independently..

  • The richest man in the world was located in Mali, Mansa Musa.

  • They were thriving before Europeans came.

    Developments in Western Europe:

  • The biggest thing in Europe at the time was Christianity.

  • The Catholic Church was very organized but corrupt.

  • Christian crusades tried to end Muslim rule in the Holy Land. It was successful in some places, but most importantly, it opened the West up to trade.

    Effects of the Crusades:

  • increased desires for luxury goods (silk, cotton, sugar, & spices)

  • introduced technologies( astrolabe, compass, ship designs, & gunpowder)

  • introduced ideas (Arabic numbers, chemistry, algebra, telescope)

  Manorialism:

Landowners would have peasants (serfs) work and live on their land.

• In exchange, the Lord of the manor would protect the serf.

• Manors were isolated with low levels of production &  low technology.

• In the High Middle Ages, we still had feudalism, everything was on the manor, and everything was self-sufficient. Always evolved around the church

  Feudalism:

• Replaced manorialism.

• Rules provide protection & aid to lesser lords (vassals/nobles).

• Nobles employ Knights for protection, & Peasants worked the land in exchange for protection and somewhere to live.

  Results:

• Feudalism = monarchy

• The High Middle Ages were a time when feudalism decreased and industrialization increased, which led to an increase in education & urbanization. Agriculture improved. The plague began to take place, or the Black Death. It spread around 1200 in Europe.

• The labor force began to decline because the population was dying from the plague.

• Peasants started revolting, checks were put in place against the feudal lords, and many people formed Guilds to control working conditions.

Unit 2:

• Merchants emerged in towns, known as Burghers, and became politically powerful.

• Towns often formed alliances with each other.

• Hanseatic League (1358): trade alliance through northern Europe to drive toward nationhood, increase social mobility, and flexibility.

• The Crusades helped pave the way for expanding networks of exchange (trade routes).

• Arab merchants from the Abbasid Empire revived the land route and the Indian Ocean trade route.

• Mongols improved the trade routes and punished bandits (Silk Roads are safer from trouble!)

  • Effects of the growth of trade routes:

    • Increased cultural exchanges between East and West, leading to the transfer of ideas, technology, and religion.

    • Growth of urban centers and port cities as hubs for trade, enhancing local economies.

    • Rise of a merchant class that became influential in social and political aspects.

• Caravans = safer, saddles = more weight on camels.

• Kashgar and Samarkand = centers of Islamic scholarship, bustling markets, and sources of fresh water and food. (Kashgar declined after a series of conquests by nomadic invaders.) Samarkand introduced new foods from SW Asia to Europe.

• Caravanserai - Like a Bucee’s but for the olden days on the trade routes.

• Flying cash - Paper money! Can withdraw the same amount at another location (like an ATM).

• Banking House - Basically, the step before modern banking.

• Bills of exchange - A written order with no interest (money to pay back), which binds one party to pay a certain amount to another party at a predetermined date in the future.

• Mongols = Gobi desert —> Life in an arid land shaped their culture.

• GENGHIS KHAN!! - (Khan = king). He was the Mongol leader who created tribal alliances and focused on building power.

• Khanate = kingdom

• Siege weapons = Such as portable towers and catapults.

• Pax Mongolica - A period of Mongolian peace. Ghenghis Khan was a peaceful ruler.

• Ghenghis Khan’s grandsons set up their khanates..

  • Batu and the Golden Horde. Batu led the Mongolian army into Russia, known as the Golden Horde, and he conquered Russian kingdoms and forced them to pay tribute. Moscow (the place in Russia being conquered) became tired of this and rose and defeated the Golden Horde, making Mongol influence decline.

  • Hulegu and the Islamic heartlands - Hulegu took control of the South West region, and his kingdom was the Il-khanate.

  • Kublai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty - Kublai Khan attempted to conquer the Ching dynasty in China, ultimately succeeding and establishing the Yuan Dynasty. This dynasty stayed closer to Chinese traditions than the Mongolians. They were skilled at governing large, diverse territories and brought prosperity to China due to cultural exchanges and trade.

• The Mongols failed to conquer beyond China.

  • White Lotus Society —> To secretly put an end to the Yuan Dynasty.

  • Zhu Yuanzhang, a Buddhist monk, started a rebellion and overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, founding the Ming Dynasty.

• Calicut - A bustling port city for merchants and people to gather and trade goods from the West and the East.

• Trade in enslaved people played a role in exchanges in the Indian Ocean. As a result of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade, African words, music styles, and customs can be found in Oman, India, and elsewhere.

• Monsoon winds = seasonal winds.

• Stern rudder, astrolabe, and lateen sails.

• Effects of this exchange - Diasporic communities (merchants waiting for favorable winds, which caused them to interact with surrounding cultures).

• Diaspora = Settlements away from your homeland. These arose through trade and trade networks.

• Rajput kingdom = Gujarat.

• The transfer of knowledge, culture, and technology grew because of thriving trade.

• Zheng He- 7 great voyages. He travelled along the East Coast of Africa to collect tributes from people he met.

• Trans-Saharan African trade became popular and known for its trade in gold.

• West African empire expansion:

  • Mali replaced a weakened Ghana. Mali profited from the gold trade, but also taxed all other trade. Mali became much more prosperous than Ghana.

  • Timbuktu and Gao - These accumulated the most wealth and developed into centers of Muslim life in the region.

  • Sundita built a strong trade network.

• Effects of interaction:

  • Arrival of new religions = unified people and provided a reason for the kingdom’s leadership. These new kingdoms either fused or coexisted with the native religions. They also influenced literary and artistic culture.

• Influence of Buddhism = Buddhist doctrines fused with Daoism to create Chan Buddhism (Zen Buddhism). The Buddhist ways attracted the peasants, offering them community support, which helped establish a cohesive social structure within these kingdoms. Buddhism and Hinduism spread through trade.

  • Angkor kingdom = a blend of both Buddhism and Hinduism.

• Innovations:

  • Hospital care, paper, agricultural efficiency, champa rice, lateen sails, stern rudder, astrolabe, magnetic compass, and gunpowder.

  • Hangzhou = center of trade, home of writers and artists, which brought trade diversity.

• Effects of the Crusades: Knowledge increased, opened global trade, open to disease, including the black death, and additional outbreaks led to a decline in economic activity and a shortage of workers.

  • Marco Polo - An Italian. The Europeans didn’t believe his tales.

  • Margery Kempe - Couldn’t read or write, told to sribe to write books.

• Environmental consequences of connectivity:

  • The trade network spread agricultural products.

  • The Black Death.

• Agricultural effects of trade routes:

  • Luxury goods, spices, textiles, religions, and merchants introduced crops.

  • Migration of crops: Champa rice!! It contributed to population growth and impacted land use and the growth of cities.

  • Bananas: Allowed the Bantu people to migrate to places where yams didn’t easily grow, enriched diets, and populations grew.

• Environmental degradation: Population increases put pressure on resources. Overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion.

  • Little Ice Age: Decrease in agricultural practice.

  • Spread of epidemics through trade networks: Mongol conquest helped carry the bubonic plague from South China to Central Asia.

    • Caravanserais also contributed to the spread of disease.

    • The bubonic plague killed 1/3 of the population.

      • It resulted in fewer workers, agricultural production declining, and it led to new relationships between workers and bosses.

• Silk Roads: Merchants specialized in luxury goods, monsoon trade, the indian ocean, and exchanged goods too heavy to transport by land.

• Trans saharan trade traded salt from North America with gold from the S kingdoms.

• Postclassical kingdoms needed stability for established states to grow. Stable kingdoms, caliphates assured merchants that they would be safe.

• Effects of established trade routes:

  • Gave rise to new trading cities (which led to centralization). Trading cities used wealth to keep trade safe. Desire for a centralized currency encouraged further economic integration across regions, facilitating smoother transactions and fostering trust among traders.

  • Centralization was desired for currencies because it sped up trade and transactions.

  • Switched to money and made commerce less bulky (flying cash)

  • There was an increase in demand for luxury goods, but increased demand for labor.

  • Mongol women were mostly free.

  • Vibrant economic and cultural exchange decreased the population because of the transfer of the bubonic plague.

Unit 3:

• Land-based gunpowder empires got their power from land control. Each empire was expanding geographically, and it was mostly because of gunpowder technology that allowed for more effective military strategies and conquests. Ex: Qing Empire of China.

• Europe: After slow political and economic development in the Middle Ages, several European countries became powerful and wealthy.

• Russia: At a pivotal position for trade, able to make trade farther East and West.

  • Ivan the Terrible expanded Russia and promoted the use of gunpowder.

• East Asia: The Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming. The Manchu established the Qing dynasty.

  • In response to high taxes, a group of peasants organized the White Lotus Rebellion, which was ultimately suppressed by the Qing dynasty, highlighting the growing discontent among the common people.

  • Ghazi Ideal - a model for warrior life that blended nomadic culture with the will to serve as holy fighters for Islam.

• Safavid Vs. Mughal: Both wanted to expand to the Persian Gulf. The Safavid was Shia Muslim, and the Mughal was Sunni Muslim. This was a religious conflict that led to a series of wars.

• Songhai Vs. Moroccan: Songhai expanded but weakened. Morocco saw its weakness and wanted more control or the trans saharan so they fought. Morocco mostly won because it had gunpowder weapons, and Songhai had none.

• The Mughals replaced the Delhi Sultanate. Akbar was very tolerant and made the place wealthy.

• Ottomans, Islamic, after the Mongols, grew rapidly because they controlled the Dardanelles (used as a choke point to launch campaigns of expansion). Also, Ottomans grew due to gunpowder weapons, and blasted Constantinople, then Istanbul.

• Divine Right of Kings - King James I. Kings had divine political and religious authority. England’s officials relied on the justices of the peace (officials selected to maintain peace in the counties of England).

• English Bill of Rights - The English Bill of Rights established Parliament's supremacy, and outlined individual rights such as fair trial and protection from cruel punishment. It is essential for modern democracy in England. England was absolutely = one source of power.

• Tax farmers collected various types of taxes to support the English government.

• Noble Russian land-owning class = boyars, the top of the social pyramid.

  • To control the boyars, Ivan IV implemented a series of reforms and policies that centralized power, weakened the noble class, and expanded the Russian territory through military campaigns.

• Peter the Great - Continued Ivan IV's legacy by modernizing Russia, introducing Western technologies, and reforming the government to strengthen the centralized authority.

• Devshirme - This was a political system, somewhat like a bureaucracy in the sense that it involved the recruitment of Christian boys from the Balkans, who were then converted to Islam, trained, and educated to serve in various roles within the Ottoman Empire, including military and administrative positions.

• Janissaries - Elite units that formed the backbone of the Ottoman military, they were originally made up of Christian boys taken from their families through the Devshirme system and trained to serve.

• Daimyo - Conflicts between land owners.

  • 3 Daimyo’s -

    • Oda Nobunaga

    • Toyotomi Hideyoshi

    • Tokugawa Leyasu

• Sikhism - A Way to combine Hindu and Sufi Muslim beliefs.

• John Wycliffe - Argued that priests were unnecessary for salvation. He also translated parts of the bible into English to make available to the masses of believers who couldn’t read or understand Latin.

• Jan Hus in Bohemia - Burned at the stake for having similar beliefs to John Wycliffe.

• Hujdrych Zwingli - Campaigned for a religion that would follow the teachings of the Bible alone, rejecting many traditions and practices of the Catholic Church.

• Babylonian captivity - Refers to the period when the Jewish people were exiled in Babylon from, marking a significant point in Jewish history and the development of religious practices.

• Lutheranism and Martin Luther - Initiated the Reformation by nailing his Ninety-Five Theses to the church door, which criticized the sale of indulgences and emphasized salvation through faith alone.

• Calvinism and John Calvin - Developed as a branch of Protestantism, emphasizing the concepts of predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God in salvation.

• Anglicanism - Emerging from the Church of England during the Reformation, it sought to maintain a middle ground between Catholicism and Protestantism.

• Counter Reformation - A response by the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reforming church practices, reaffirming core doctrines, and combating the spread of Protestantism through the establishment of new orders and the Council of Trent.

• Edict of Nantes - Granted religious liberty to the Huguenots (French Protestants), allowing them to worship freely and giving them equal civil rights.

• Thirty Years War - A conflict fought primarily in Central Europe, the Thirty Years War began as a struggle between Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, eventually involving many European powers and leading to significant political changes, territorial adjustments, and a devastating loss of life.

• Peace of Westphalia - A series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years War, establishing a new order in Europe based on territorial sovereignty and recognizing the rights of individual states to govern their affairs.

• Empiricism - A philosophical approach emphasizing knowledge through sensory experience and evidence, which became a significant aspect of the scientific revolution and influenced thinkers like John Locke.

• Gunpowder empires declined because they were unable to compete with European trading companies, mostly British.

• The Soldiers - The Ottoman and Safavid empires used slave soldiers to offset the decline in their military power, effectively maintaining control over their territories and expanding their influence.

• Morocco - They invaded Songhai, and Moroccan forces looted the capital of Gao and ended the empire. Yet, they were unable to hold this Songhai territory.

• Aztecs - They kept control over land through force, fear, and intimidation rather than a centralized bureaucracy (see unit 1 for what a bureaucracy is). They also used a tribute list system.

  • The Mughals had the Zamindars (tax officers who collected taxes from peasants).

  • The Ottomans used tax farming.

  • The Ming dynasty used hard currency (rice rather than silver coins).

• All of these rulers used religion, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule.

Unit 4:

• Transoceanic interconnections: Maritime empires! (Ones based on sea travel)

  • Ex: Portuguese and Spanish (looked for oceanic trade in Asia).

• The Transatlantic trade network linked the Americas, Europe, and Africa.

• Peasant labor increased because of the demand for food.

• Technological innovations:

  • Compass from China. Helped ships go the right way.

  • Atrolabe. Improved navigation.

  • Caravel, a small three-tiered sailing ship.

  • Cartography! (Map science).

• Primogeniture laws - Each estate to the oldest son.

• Omani - a European rivalry. This happened because Christopher Columbus searched for a new route.

• Conquest brought new wealth to states through the collection of taxes through trading.

• Religion was a big reason people went to explore and expand.

  • Ex: Christians - “had a duty to convert others”

• The wealth of a country at this time was measured by the amount of gold and silver it had.

• Mercantilism: Set rules to sell as many goods to other countries to maximize the flow of precious metals outside of the country.

• Portuguese in Africa and India: Portugal could only expand overseas, and three people led its exploration.

  • Prince Henry the Navigator Sponsored seafaring expeditions that aimed to explore the west coast of Africa, facilitate trade, and establish a maritime empire.

  • Bartholemew Diaz: Sailed around Africa into his waters, his crew didn’t know, successfully reaching the southern tip of Africa, which opened the way for future sea routes to Asia.

  • Vasco De Gama: Sailed further than Diaz and landed in India. He claimed some of the Portuguese Empire, and these parts helped with trade.

• Alfonso de Albuquerque: Served as the governor of Portuguese India and played a crucial role in establishing Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean by capturing key coastal cities and controlling trade routes.

• Ferdinand Magellan: Led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, which demonstrated the vastness of the Earth and the potential for global trade routes, although he was killed during the journey.

• Trading Post Empires: These aimed to establish a monopoly (complete control over the trade of certain goods) over the spice trade and license all vessels (boats) between Malacca and Hormuz.

  • This gave the Portuguese a significant advantage in trade and made them a global trading post empire.

• Manila: A Spanish commercial center in the area that attracted merchants.

• Galleons: Heavily armed Spanish ships that made stops in the Philippines, which allowed silver trade to flourish.

• Northwest passage: A route through or around North America that led to East Asia and the precious trade in spices and luxury goods.

• French Expeditions:

  • Jacques Cartier: He sailed from France to Canada, claiming the St. Lawrence River for France and establishing a French presence in North America.

  • Samuel de Champlain: He is known as the "father of New France," having founded Quebec and explored the Great Lakes region, further solidifying French influence in the fur trading industry.

• New France: A French colony in North America that served as a base for trade and missionary activities, and helped expand French territorial claims in the region.

• English expeditions:

  • John Cabot: He was an Italian explorer who sailed under the English flag. He landed on the coast of North America, which laid the foundation for later British expeditions and colonization.

• Jamestown, on the James River, was named after James I, the first successful colony of the Americas.

• Dutch expeditions:

  • Henry Hudson: An English explorer known for his travels in search of the Northwest Passage, he explored the river that is now named after him as well as parts of present-day New York.

  • New Amsterdam: Used Henry’s findings, now New York, and it prospered because it was near a major river that flowed to the ocean.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

• An agreement between Spain and Portugal to divide newly colonized lands.

Key Explorers

1. Amerigo Vespucci (1500): Explored South America.

2. Ponce de Leon (1513): Explored Florida.

3. Vasco de Balboa (1513): Explored Central America.

4. Ferdinand Magellan (1519): First to sail from South America to the Philippines.

5. Giovanni da Verrazzano (1524): Explored North America.

6. Sir Francis Drake (1578): First to circumnavigate the globe.

7. John Cabot (1497): Explored North America.

8. Henry Hudson (1609): Explored the Hudson River.

Innovations for Exploration

1. Sternpost Rudder: Improved ship control (from China).

2. Lateen Sails: Allowed directional control (from the Roman Empire).

3. Astrolabe: Measured latitude using stars.

4. Magnetic Compass: Helped determine direction (from China).

5. Three-Masted Caravels: Large ships suitable for long voyages.

Spanish Conquest

• Spanish explorers found wealth in the Aztec and Inca empires.

• Hernando Cortés: Conquered the Aztecs in 1519, using local allies.

• Disease Impact: Smallpox decimated the Aztec population from 20 million (1520) to 2 million (1580).

• Francisco Pizarro: Conquered the Inca Empire in 1531, also aided by disease.

Encomienda System

• A hierarchical society established by the Spanish:

  1. Peninsulares: Spanish officials in the colonies.

  2. Creoles: Spanish born in colonies.

  3. Mestizos: Mixed European and Native American ancestry.

  4. Mulattos: Mixed European and African ancestry.

  5. Native Americans: Indigenous people.

• Viceroys: Governors of regions in New Spain who enforced this system.

African Slave Trade

• Slaves were brought to work in plantations and mines.

• Many were taken through kidnapping and trade with local rulers.

• An estimated 13 million Africans were forced onto ships, suffering brutal conditions on the Middle Passage.

The Columbian Exchange

• Exchange of animals, plants, diseases, and people between Europe, the Americas, and Africa.

• Led to a population increase due to new food products.

• Key products: sugar (from plantations) and silver (from mining) relied on forced labor.

The Commercial Revolution

• The Age of Exploration was driven by trade and conquest.

• Joint-stock companies: Allowed pooling of resources to reduce investment risk.

• Led to profits and the development of modern stock markets.

• Chattel slavery: Individuals were considered property to be bought and sold.

• Expansion of the maritime trade networks = rise of the Asante empire and the Kingdom of the Kongo.

• Japan banned Christian worship = expelled foreigners, and allowed some Dutch merchants to live on a small island.

• France Vs. Britain (British moed to Dutch areas) Iroquois and French signed a peace treaty (great peace of Montreal).

• Hispaniola - Haiti Island and the Dominican Republic.

• Coercive labor = brutal and harsh

• Hacienda system = landowners developed agriculture on their lands and used coerced labor.

• Mit’a system = Young men required to devote a certain amount of labor to public projects.

• Mercantilism = Increased government control of the economy through high taxes.

• Middle Passage = A hard journey across the Atlantic that transported enslaved Africans to the Americas, which was highly unsanitary and packed.

• France: Fronde, a civil disturbance in France, attempted to slow the growing royal power.

  • Metacoms War - (King Phillip’s War) resulted from English colonists using unfair tactics to control native American lands.

• Portugal: The Dutch and English pushed the Portuguese out of South Asia.

  • 1624: Ana Nzinga (Christian baptized) became ruler of Ndongo (In Angola). She became an ally of Portugal. The Alliance broke, and Nzinga and her people fled to Matamba. She then made a rebellion in Ndongo and allied with the Dutch.

• Russia: Wars weakened the central Russian government and increased the power of the nobility.

  • As demand for grain went up, nobles imposed harsh conditions on Russian serfs.

  • Russia kept serfs tied to the land long after the practice ended.

  • Village communes (mirs) also controlled even the small landholders among the peasants.

  • Near the Black Sea, peasants who were skilled fighters lived on grassy, treeless steppes —> most were runaway serfs who lived in small groups influenced by the Mongols. These warriors could be hired to defend against the Swedish, tartar, and Ottoman forces. “Cossack warriors,” who were important to Russia’s expansion.

  • Yemelyan Pugachev was a Cossack warrior who led a peasant rebellion against Catherine the Great, protesting the transfer of power to nobles over serfs in exchange for political loyalty. The rebellion prompted Catherine to intensify the oppression of peasants and seek noble support to quell future uprisings.

• South Asia: A Hindu warrior group fought the Mughals in a series of battles. It created the Maratha Empire. Hindu Marathas ended the Mughal rule.

• Spain: Pueblo revolt: A rebellion within Spanish territories where the Pueblo and Apache (2 indigenous groups) fought colonizers trying to force religious conversions on them. The indigenous killed a lot of Spaniards and drove the rest out (destroyed churches).

• England (British): England defeated Spanish colonists and took over Jamaica. Slaves in the Caribbean and former Spanish territories in the Americas fought to gain freedom (Maroon wars).

  • Maroons = descendants of runaway African slaves in Jamaica. Queen Nanny (an escaped slave) united all the Maroons on an island.

  • Gloucester County rebellion - Enslaved Africans and white indentured servants conspired to demand freedom from the governor.

  • Metacoms War (yes, I know I’m mentioning it again) - The final indigenous effort to drive out the British from New England. Destroyed 12 towns, and some Native American groups sided with the English (Pequot and Mohegan). The war ended with the subjugation of the Wampanoag people to the English colonists.

  • King James II became the king of England. He was a Catholic. Anti-Protestant measures enraged English people. A group of nobles invited William of Orange (James’ nephew and son-in-law) to invade England with an army and become king. He agreed, and James fled to France.

  • English people called this the Glorious Revolution or the Bloodless Revolution. It strengthened parliament and passed a law forbidding Catholics to rule England.

• The Ottoman Empire gave haven to Jews who were kicked out of England, France, and Spain.

• Huguenots - France protestants who faced persecution and many fled to other European countries.

• Ottomans: A warrior aristocracy that began to compete for positions in bureaucracy with the Ulama (scholars and experts in Islamic law).

  • Janissaries: They gained power and tried to mount coups against the sultans. Viziers - Strong advisors who gained influential positions in government. They spoke for the sultan. The sultan still had lots of power. Timar = a system where the sultan granted land or tax to those he favored, which was also used to keep soldiers loyal and reward them.

  • Sultan Mehmed II.

• Mughal Empire: The greatest emperor = Akbar the Great. He was religiously tolerant and ended the Jizya tax, provided funds, and supported Sikhism.

• Women in the Ottoman Empire = wanted to promote their children as heirs, which led to Harem politics. This power dynamic allowed women to exert influence behind the scenes, despite their limited public roles.

• Roxelana: Became an unusually powerful Ottoman woman. She was stolen from her home and forced to convert to Islam. She was then forced to marry the sultan of the empire.

• Peasants were poor because they had to pay taxes to help support the Ottoman armies.

• Barbary Pirates: Those who pirated the seas near North Africa along the Barbary coast. They captured other Europeans in the Mediterranean and then sold them to the sultan to enrich the empire and fund further military campaigns.

• Manchu (Qing Dynasty) were less tolerant than the Mongols, and kept the civil service exam.

• Han people = men required to wear their hair in “queues”, a braided ponytail (a test of loyalty), a style of the Manchu.

Unit 5

• The Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was a scientific period of industrialization and human rights. It caused religion to become less dominant and caused the revolution to begin. This was also the rise of Socialism and Liberalism. It’s also known as the “age of isms”.

• Nationalism: A feeling of intense loyalty to those who share one’s language or culture.

• Francis Bacon: He created Empiricism, the knowledge that comes from what you observe through experience, including experiments.

• Thomas Hobbes and John Locke: These two viewed life as a result of the “social contract”, which, in short, is an agreement where individuals exchange some freedoms for government protection of their rights.

  • Hobbes said people should live in a bleak world, but they should give up some rights in return for law and order.

  • Locke said people had natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property.

• Philosophes: A group of writers and thinkers who explored theories.

• Baron Montesquieu: He praised checks and balances, and he inspired the government to establish three branches.

• Voltaire: He campaigned in France for religious liberty and judicial reform.

• John-Jacques Rousseau: He presented the concept of the general will of the population and the obligation of a sovereign to carry out the general will.

• Adam Smith: He made the idea of “Laissez-Faire”, or leave alone. He believed the government should reduce its intervention in economic decisions, which provided the foundation for capitalism (economic system).

• Deism: Belief that divinity set natural laws in motion and left. (Like god made the world and dipped.)

• Thomas Paine: He advocated for liberty from Britain, but was anti-church, so people didn’t like him or listen to him.

• Conservatism: The belief in valuing real-life experience more than just ideas or theories.

• Socialism: A System of public ownership (like the production of clothing mills).

• Utopian Socialists: Those who felt society could go in positive directions by setting up ideal small communities.

• Henri de Saint-Simon: A Frenchman who believed that scientists working with businesses could operate clean and beautiful places to work that provided useful things.

• Charles Fourier: He believed that Utopia was harmonious living in communities rather than class struggle.

• Robert Owen: He believed in education for working children, communal ownership of property, and community rules.

• Fabian Society: Gradual socialists who wanted to reform society through parliament.

• Classical liberalism: In simple terms, it advocates for individual freedoms, limited government intervention, and the protection of personal rights.

• Mary Wollstonecraft: She advocated for women to be educated; the Seneca Falls meeting = activists gathering for the promotion of women's rights and suffrage.

• Abolitionism: A Movement to free the slaves.

• Zionism: A desire of Jews to reestablish an independent Jewish homeland.

• Anti-Zionism: Hostility towards Jews.

• Theodor Herzl: He led the zionism movement.

• The 18th century marked the start of an intense period of revolution and rebellion against existing governments, leading to the start of new nation-states due to the Enlightenment and nationalism.

• Discontent with Monarchist and imperial rule encouraged the development of systems of government and various ideas, including democracy and liberalism.

• Colonial subjects in the Americas led a series of rebellions inspired by democratic ideas. The American Revolution and its successful start of a republic, the United Statesweree an inspiration for a ton of other revolutions. The American Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American Independence movements began the emergence of independent states in the Americas.

• American Revolution: It was caused by opposition to taxes (they were in war debt). Resulted in established independence and a written constitution. It was led by George Washington and Thomas Jefferson.

• French Revolution: It was caused by opposition to the growing. It resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy and ended feudalism and serfdom. It was highly unfair.

• Haitian Revolution: It was caused by opposition to slavery. It resulted in the end of slavery in Haiti and redistributed land to free blacks and former slaves. It was led by Louverture.

• Latin American Revolution: It was caused by opposition to European control. It resulted in the establishment of independent countries and led to social conflicts (Simon Bolivar). It was also the Creole revolution.

• Calls for unification or liberation:

  • Propaganda movements in the Philippines - Nationalistic and inspired by the Enlightenment —> The Spanish had a harsh reaction, and it led to an independence movement.

  • Māori nationalism and the New Zealand Wars in NZ - Māori tribes united to fight the British after they colonized NZ, but the British won.

  • Puerto Rico — writings of Lola Rodriguez —> A poet who advocated for independence in Puerto Rico and Cuba. She was exiled until independence in 1899.

  • German and Italian unifications - Realpolitik (practical politics of reality used to manipulate wars to cause the unification of Italy and Germany). It caused a major shift in the balance of power in Europe, especially Germany.

  • Balkan nationalisms: The exposure to the Enlightenment from the West led to nationalism and a desire for independence from the Ottomans.

  • Ottomanism: The attempt by the Ottoman government to unify all its people by making them have a common culture and minimizing ethnic and linguistic differences. This resulted in the complete opposite of nationalism.

• Industrialization: The increased mechanization of production and the social changes that accompanied this shift had their roots in several influences.

  • These would be the Columbian Exchange, the rise of Maritime empires, increased agricultural productivity, and greater capital.

• The agricultural revolution resulted in increased productivity.

• Crop rotation: Rotating different types of crops in and out of the fields each year. (Increased food production).

• Seed drill: A device that plants seeds in the ground fast. (Increased food production).

• Cottage industry: Where merchants provided raw cotton to women who spun it into finished cloth in their own homes.

• Spinny Jenny and Water Frame: These innovations reduced the amount of time needed to spin yarn and weave cloth. Richard Arkwright made the water frame and used water power to drive the spinning wheel. (He was also the father of the factory system.) James Hargreaves made the Spinning Jenny, which spun more than one thread at a time.

• Interchangeable parts: Made by Eli Whitney, he led the division of labor and then produced the Henry Ford assembly line.

• Britain: Britain was the leader in industrialization at this time because they were on the Atlantic Ocean and had many seaways. They were also on top of coal deposits and had access to resources from their colonies. They had abundant rivers, strong fleets of ships, and protection of private property.

• Enclosure movement: This was when the government fenced off the commons to give exclusive use of it to people who purchased the land. The movement led to a reduction in agricultural land for farmers, which pushed them towards urban areas in search of work in factories and resulting in the fueling of the Industrial Revolution.

• France and Germany: France had sparsely populated urban areas, which limited the labor for its factories. The French wars and revolution also delayed industrialization in France.

  • Germany was politically split into small states, which delayed its industrialization, but once Germany was unified again, it became a leading industrial power. (Coal and steel)…flint and steel…

• United States: The workforce was a key factor in the U.S’s success. There were a lot of immigrants who provided most of the labor.

• Russia: Russia focused on railroads and exports. They made the Trans-Siberian railroads (Moscow to the Pacific Ocean), which allowed easy trade.

• Japan: Japan adopted Western technology to protect its traditional values and learned from the West to build its military (to maintain domestic traditions).

• Shift In Manufacturing: Company rule - The British East India Company controlled parts of India and imposed rough taxes that led to the decline of India’s ability to mine and work metals.

  • There was also an ongoing fear of another uprising, which led to the Arms Act (restricted access to materials and production of guns).

• Coal revolution:

  • Steam engine = James Watt = an inexpensive way to harness coal power and create steam, which generated power for machines in textile factories.

  • It helped make water transportation no longer dependent on winds for power.

  • Coaling stations: Fueling areas for boats, as they now relied on coal.

• Iron (coal made it possible)

• A 2nd Industrial Revolution: Steel, chemicals, precision machinery, and electronics.

  • Steel production, Bessemer press (blasting metal)

  • Oil = derived from plant and animal remains (fossil fuel)

  • Communication = telephone, Alexander Graham Bell = Thomas Edison made it more practical. Gugliemo Marconi = radio.

• Global trade and migration - Transcontinental railroads, desire for capital (money).

• State-sponsored (planned government industrialization) visions of Industrialization:

  • Russia = late but successful.

  • China = Self-strengthening movement, not successful.

  • Japan = Meiji restoration, successful.

  • Ottomans = Tanzimat reforms, not successful.

  • Muhammad Ali = Egypt.

  • Germany (led by Prussia) = Very successful, began to industrialize earlier than those on this list.

• Meiji Era: Meiji Japan = successful! They reformed their society (Meiji restoration) to compete with the West and industrialize. The Charter Oath got rid of Japanese feudalism. They adopted certain Western aspects to industrialization but still held on to their traditional culture (Shintoism).

  • Matthew Perry! He showed up, and Japan was like, “Oh, we should probably industrialize.”

• Muhammad Ali’s state-sponsored industrialization development of a cotton textile industry.

• Ottoman Viceroy/Governor of Egypt: They took control of more lands in Egypt under state control to grow more cotton. They built textile factories to compete with Europe. They were considered to be the first modern rulers of Egypt. All of this was mostly successful.

• Corporations: Businesses chartered by a government as a legal entity owned by stockholders (individuals who buy partial ownership through a stock market).. The stockholders might receive sums of money (dividends) when it makes a profit.

• Monopoly: Having control of a specific business and eliminating all competition. It was made by Alfred Krupp, a German industrialist, who became known for his contributions to the steel industry.

• Cecil Rhodes: A Britishman who was the founder of the De Beers Diamond company and an investor in railroads in Cape Town, in Africa.

• Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation: They focused on finance and corporate investments, along with global banking. Their main duty in a few words was to facilitate trade, provide loans, and support economic growth through strategic investments across Asia.

• Unilever Corp: Soap.

• Sole proprietorship: A business owned by a single person.

• Sadler report: A report on working conditions in factories and child labor. It helped inspire reforms in the U.K.

• In industrialized states, many workers organized themselves into Labor Unions to improve working conditions, limit hours, and gain higher wages.

  • An example would be Voting rights and Child labor. Voting rights were reduced, and then property requirements were removed.

  • Child labor laws were slowly ridding children of working in mines and factories, leading to mandatory learning.

• Discontent with established power structures encouraged Karl Marx and socialism and communism.

  • John Stuart Mill - Utilitarianism - a gradual reform allowing unions and ending child labor, for safer working conditions in factories.

  • Friedrich Engels - He wrote the communist manifesto with Karl Marx.

• Reform efforts:

  • Tanzimat - Series of reforms inspired by Muhammad Ali’s reforms to industrialize the economy and modernize the gov. and society. Had some success, but overall did not meet intended goals. It took place in the Ottoman Empire.

    • Conservatives (people who stick to tradition), Janissaries, and the Young Turks (reforms didn’t go far enough) were all responses to Tanzimat reforms.

  • Qing dynasty: Self-strengthening movement - an attempt by China to modernize their government, economy, military, and technology, which failed.

    • 100 days of reform (Guangxu) - After losing the Sino-Japanese war, a stronger push for reform was made, but much resistance to reform was made by conservative groups (empress Dowager Cixi). She stopped the expansion.

      • (Also, China will be bullied by tons of rebellions: Taiping and Boxer, for example).

• New Social classes emerged: the Middle class (white collar) and the industrial working class (blue collar).

  • Before the Industrial Revolution, the Nobility and clergy had the most power.

  • After the Industrial Revolution, Nobility was considered “old money”, and industrialists had the most power (“new money”).

• Middle-class women = restricted to the home. Cult of domesticity = The idea that women should remain in the home and focus on homemaking and children, reflecting beliefs about gender roles during the Industrial Revolution.

• Rapid Urbanization:

  • Led to many challenges: Pollution, poverty, crime, health crisis, housing shortages, and insufficient infrastructure. These problems mainly affected the working class. These challenges led to reforms and the making of policies to meet and solve these issues. (Police, apartments, improved sanitation).

Unit 6

• Rationales for Imperialism:

• Economic motives: Industrialized nations needed raw materials (rubber, oil, tin, cotton, etc.) and new markets for goods.

• Political and military motives: Nations competed for colonies to show power and strategic control (naval bases).

• Cultural justification: Social Darwinism (stronger nations are destined to dominate weaker ones). “White man’s burden”(belief that the Europeans had a duty to “civilize” non-Europeans), missionary efforts (Christian missionaries spread Western beliefs, education, and religion).

• The British expanded in Africa (Scramble for Africa), India, and Southeast Asia.

• The Dutch controlled the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia).

• Japan engaged in imperialism after the Meiji restoration and took over Korea and Taiwan.

• The USA took over the Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, and Puerto Rico after the Spanish-American War.

• Anti-colonial movements:

  • Zulu resistance (In South Africa, led by Shaka Zulu against the British and the Dutch).

  • Madhist revolt (In Sudan, and Islamic resistance against the British and Egyptians).

  • Boxer Rebellion (In China, an anti-Christian uprising against Western influences).

  • The Yaa Asante war (In Ghana, led by a queen in the Asante empire, was for resistance against the British).

• Effects of Imperialism:

  • Colonies became dependent on European powers.

  • There was cultural tension where Western ideas were suppressing the indigenous traditions.

  • There was long-term nationalism: This was where imperialism led to independence movements in Africa and Asia.

• Methods of Imperial expansion:

  • Settler colonies (Europeans settling permanently in Algeria, South Africa, and Australia).

  • Economic imperialism (nations should power through economics and not just politics) —> British East India Company in India.

• Direct vs. Indirect rule:

  • Direct = European officials governed the colony (Algeria and France).

  • Indirect = Local rulers enforce colonial policies (British Nigeria).

• Spheres of Influence: When European powers carved China into small trade zones after the Opium Wars took place. (The Opium Wars, in a few words, were basically when Britain wanted to trade with China, and all China wanted was Opium, but it was addictive, so China got mad.)

  • Treaty of Nanjing: China was forced to sign an unequal treaty that gave Britain considerable rights to expand trade with China

• Diplomatic agreements: When control was given through treaties and not war (Berlin Conference splitting Africa among European powers).

• The British took over Egypt (Suez Canal). South Africa (Zulu and Boers).

• Belgium (Germany): King Leopold II. He took Congo and led brutal forces of labor practices.

• British Raj: A period where Britain took over India after the Sepoy Rebellion.

• China:

  • After the Opium Wars, China was carved up by European powers.

  • The USA pushed for open-door trading (trade rights) in China.

• Japan:

  • Japan annexed Korea after defeating China and Russia.

  • Japan took Taiwan and parts of Manchuria.

• USA:

  • The USA participated in the Spanish-American War, which led to its control of the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico.

  • The USA annexed Hawaii for economic and military purposes.

• Samori Touré’s war (West Africa). They fought the French in Guinea.

• Consequences: Colonial economies were structured to benefit imperial power (exporting raw material and importing manufactured goods). Indigenous tradition was suppressed, and Western education and Christianity spread. Nationalist movements grew as people resisted foreign rule.

• Causes of indigenous resistance:

  • Increasing questions about political authority.

    • Western-style schools (civilizing mission) and Enlightenment ideas (popular sovereignty and the Social Contract).

  • Growing sense of nationalism.

    • Imperial powers imposed language and culture on colonized people, which had a way of inducing a sense of nationalism in the conquered peoples.

• Direct resistance movements:

  • Tupac Amaru: Failed. He was executed. The last Native American rebellion against Spain.

  • Samory Touré’s military battles in West Africa. This failed. The leader was exiled.

  • Yaa Asantewaa war in West Africa. This also failed. The leader was exiled.

  • The 1857 rebellion in India (Sepoy Rebellion). This also failed. The British East India Company was removed from control by the British Raj. Led to India’s nationalism.

• New States:

  • Balkans: Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina (foreshadowing to WWI).

  • Sokoto Caliphate: In Nigeria, it failed, led by Islamic scholars.

  • Cherokee Nation: The Failed Indian Removal act of 1830, the trail of tears.

    • Cherokee tried to resist being colonized by changing their culture to match the USA (like making a constitution) to show how similar they were to the US, so they wouldn’t colonize them. Cherokee got lawyers to fight against their removal in court in the case of Worcester v. Georgia, which showed their sovereignty as a nation.

  • Zulu Kingdom: An already independent nation, the Zulu War was able to fight off the British but ultimately failed.

• Increasing discontent with imperial rule led to rebellions, some were influenced by religious ideas.

  • Ghost dance in the USA: In sum, it was a religious movement that emerged among Native American tribes pushing for their lands and way of life to come back while promoting peace and hope for a brighter future.

  • Xhosa Cattle Killing: In Southern Africa. They blamed the British for killing all their cows with American diseases. Some girl had a prophecy, which said that sacrificing their cattle would rid them of the British influence and bring wealth and their land back (was false and led to famine and dead Xhosa and cattle).

• The need for raw materials for factories and increased food supplies for a growing population led to export economies (economies focused on exporting materials and goods)

• Monocultures: Planting only one crop. This led to environmental problems like soil not having nutrients, as well as deforestation.

• Causes of economic imperialism: Imperial powers needed raw materials for factories. They needed to supply food to the growing urban populations (urbanization). Imperial powers changed colonial economies to serve themselves.

• Resource export economies:

  • Cotton in Egypt = textiles.

  • Rubber in the Amazon and Congo basin = more than just tires for cars.

  • Palm oil in West Africa = deforestation.

  • Guano in Peru and Chile = fertilizer.

  • Meat from Argentina and Uruguay = food production (due to the growing middle class).

  • Diamonds from Africa = luxury products.

• This all mainly benefited the industrialized nations than the exporting ones.

• Economic Imperialism: To dominate the economies by exploiting them through their government or companies to get the cash crops, minerals, or whatever they wanted from that economic colony.

• Industrialized states practicing economic imperialism:

  • The British and French expanded their influence in China through the Opium Wars. (The Opium Wars were when the British sold the drug Opium to China, which is illegal bc it’s highly addictive, to get the Chinese to trade with the British.)

  • The construction of the Port of Buenos Aires (Argentina) with the supported of British firms.

  • Building of the Panama Canal - Teddy Roosevelt and the intervention in Panama and Colombia. This, in very simple terms, was a strategy that increased raw material extraction and allowed for greater control over trade routes, leading to economic advantages for the industrialized nations.

• Commodities that contributed to European and American economic advantage:

  • Cotton is grown in South Asia and Egypt, and exported to Britain and other European countries.

  • Opium was produced in the Middle East or South Asia and exported to China. It was to the benefit of the British (Opium Wars).

  • Palm oil in Africa and exported to European countries.

  • Copper extracted in Chile - Sent to Spain and other European nations.

• Migration in many cases was influenced by changes in demographics in both industrialized and non-industrialized societies that presented challenges to existing patterns of living.

• New modes of transportation (railroads and steamships) contributed to global industrialization.

• Return of migrants:

  • Japanese agricultural workers in the Pacific. The population increase in Japan + colonization society, trying to set up settler colonies.

  • Lebanese merchants in the Americas. The population increase in Lebanon and opportunities in the Americas.

  • Italian industrial workers in Argentina. Poverty in Italy and pro-immigration policies in Argentina.

• Pull factor = pull people towards places (jobs, aka economic opportunity).

• Push factor = push people out of places (segregation).

• Migrants:

  • Irish to the United States. The push was the Irish potato famine. The pull was jobs and opportunities in the U.S.

  • British engineers and geologists went to South Asia and Africa. Colonial service sent British officers or engineers, and other technical experts to various colonies, spreading Western science and technology.

• Many people voluntarily choose to relocate in search of work.

• The new capitalist economy relied on coerced and semi-coerced labor migration, including slavery, Chinese and Indian indentured servitude, and convict labor.

  • Slavery: Cuba, Brazil, and the U.S were the last countries to abolish slavery, however, slavery still existed in Africa until the 20th century.

  • Indentured servitude: To pay for a journey to a new place, people signed contracts to work for several years in exchange for passage, food, and shelter, usually facing harsh conditions and exploitation.

  • Contract labor: The British developed this to replace slave labor in 1806. It took advantage of Indian and Chinese laborers. They paid them very low wages and had terrible work conditions. They were treated like slaves.

• National Indian Congress: An Indian immigrant group trying to advocate for Indian rights (Gandhi).

• Nativism = anti-immigrant act.

• Migrants tended to be male, leaving the women to take new roles in the home society.

  • In some societies, men would wait to emigrate until another male could take over. (Roles stayed the same.)

  • In some societies, men would emigrate and women would take over and work for the family. If Remittances (the sum of money sent for goods) were high enough, the women would work less and spend more time at home.

• Migrants often created ethnic enclaves in different parts of the world to transplant their culture to new environments.

  • Chinese in Southeast Asia. French Indochina (commerce), Malaya (Opium), Dutch East Indies (colonial government positions).

  • Caribbean, South America, and North America. U.S (farms, garment industry, and railroads), Latin America (plantations in Cuba, servants, Andean railroad, and Guano mines).

  • Indians in East and Southern Africa. Worked on railroads. Gandhi (National Indian Congress).

  • The Caribbean and Southeast Asia. Plantations (tea, rubber, coffee, etc.) Kangani system (South East Asia) - replaced indentured servitude … kind of better?

  • Irish in North America. Laborers (canal system) or farmers. They spread Irish culture, and eventually became stars of the new popular culture (boxers, baseball players, performers).

  • Italians in North and South America. People of Italian descent made up 55% of the Argentine population.

• Receiving societies didn’t always embrace the immigrants.

  • Chinese Exclusion Act - An anti immigration policy in the U.S that was super racist. (They’re taking our jobs!! Get them outta here!!)

  • White Australia policy - An anti-Chinese/ immigration policy to preserve “white Australia”. It lasted until the 1970s; it was established in 1901.

Unit 7

• Russia - Nicholas II = Russian Tsar (He was assassinated).

  • Russia was falling behind due to internal challenges (slow to educate, had peasants, and was slow to build roads). Russia resisted calls for political reform. The internal problems led to external ones (Russo-Japanese War, WWI, didn’t have a strong economic base to support a military, and became weaker).

  • Russia lost the Crimean War against the Ottomans, which was supported by the British and French.

  • Russia lost the Russo-Japanese War. It was a battle for power in East Asia.

  • The Bolsheviks = An organization that represented the working class of Russia under Vladimir Lenin. The Bolsheviks seized power and set up a communist government run by Lenin.

  • The Soviet government got rid of private trade and distributed peasants’ crops to feed urban workers. The Soviets took ownership of the country’s factories and heavy industries.

• China - The revolution overthrew the Qing Dynasty, which created a republic led by Sun Yat-sen.

  • They had internal challenges like domestic concerns, ethnic tension, the constant danger of famine (had a rapid population boom but couldn't expand farmland to produce a stable food supply), low government revenue (they didn’t update the tax system so taxes were low and the government didn’t have enough money to build things).

  • They also had external challenges like industrialization and European powers demanding Chinese goods.

  • Sun-Yat-Sen believed in democracy and nationalism, which gave him the position of military leader. He led the Chinese nationalist party (Mao Zedong led the Chinese Communist Party), also known as Kuomintang, which regained power.

• Ottomans -

  • Young Turks = Advocates for a constitution like the Europeans.

  • Turkification = An effort to make all the citizens of the multiethnic empire identify with Turkish culture. The Turks resented the British and French, so they secretly allied with Germany in WWI.

  • The Ottomans were replaced by the Republic of Turkey.

  • Turkish National Movement - Led by Mustafa Kemal, who defeated the British. Kemal was the first president of the Republic of Turkey (he was given the name Atatürk, or father of the Turks). He focused on being more like a Western democracy.

• Mexico -

  • Francisco Pancho Villa = defeated the Mexican troops, and he was a general.

  • Porfirio Diaz jailed Francisco Medero (an opposition candidate for president). His bad policies and opposition to land reform, along with his jailing, led to the Mexican Revolution.

  • Emiliano Zapata = Began the process of redistributing land to peasants.

  • Mexico adopted a new constitution, and the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) dominated Mexican politics.

• Militarism - An arms buildup with expanding capabilities led to an environment where war was seen as an inevitable means to resolve disputes.

• Alliances - Triple Entente (France, Russia, Great Britain), Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).

• Imperialism - A competition for colonies and global dominance intensified rivalries, and the scramble for overseas territories heightened tensions and fostered distrust among the powers.

• Nationalism - Strong national pride and desire for Independence (Like the Balkans), which often led to confrontations and demands for self-determination and destabilizing empires.

• The immediate catalyst for WWI (“The Great War”) was a complex web of alliances, imperial ambitions, and rising nationalist sentiments, culminating in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, which triggered the onset of the war.

• Total War - Nations mobilized all available resources to support war efforts, trench warfare, tech advancements (Machine gun, poison gas, tanks, airplanes).

• Subjects from Asia, Africa, and the Pacific were drawn into the conflict.

• Women entered the workforce, taking on roles in factories, agriculture, and military positions (challenging traditional gender roles).

• Causes of the Great Depression - Agriculture overproduction, stock market crash, the UK and France struggled to repay loans to the U.S from WWI, the USSR refused to pay.

• WWII ended the Great Depression by stimulating economic growth as production ramped up to support the war effort, ultimately leading to job creation and a rise in consumer spending.

• Government intervention in the economy:

  • The New Deal (United States) - a series of programs and reforms enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt aimed at providing relief for the unemployed, recovery of the economy, and reform of the financial system to prevent another depression.

  • The fascist corporatist economy (Italy), aka “Corporatism” - Think of it as the government controlling businesses. The government wanted to unite everyone and avoid conflict, so they organized workers and industries into groups.

• Governments with strong popular support in Brazil and Mexico -

  • Mexico (PRI) - They had popular support and, since they dominated Mexican politics, they did a fairly good job navigating the economy during the 1930s.

  • Brazil - They represented “hyper nationalism”, a fascist type of government that sided with the allies over Germany during WWII, which moved them towards liberalism.

• In the Soviet Union, Vladimir Lenin was the leader of the Communist Party. After he died, Joseph Stalin took over. Stalin was a dictator and wasn’t a fan of Lenin’s policy, so he made a five-year plan to industrialize the USSR FAST.

  • The government controlled the national economy through the Five-Year Plans, often implementing repressive policies with negative effects for the population.

  • Under the new leader, Stalin.

  • Five-Year Plans sought to modernize and industrialize the Soviet Union. Collectivization of agriculture was also part of it; it failed miserably and led to the deaths of millions (especially Ukrainians) because of starvation and political persecution. Agricultural production went down. Stalin would imprison (in gulags or execute) those who opposed him or seemed like a political threat.

• Ultimately, because of hard economic times, three government approaches to the global depression emerged:

  • Liberalism: Keynesian economics (The Idea that economic downturns are natural, so the government should pump money into the economy), the U.S.

  • Facism: Totalitarianism (absolutism and ultra-nationalist policies like the Nazis). Germany, Italy, and Spain.

  • Communism: Totalitarianism. The Soviet Union.

• Between the two world wars, Western and Japanese Imperial states mostly maintained control over colonial holdings, but in some cases, they gained territory through conquest or treaties, and in other cases, faced anti-imperial resistance.

• Territorial gains:

  • Transfer of former German colonies to Great Britain and France under the system of League of Nations mandates. Also, former territories in the Middle East from the Ottomans.

  • Manchuko/Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere - Japan expanded its empire. They would conquer and claim territory and say that they were setting people free from Western Imperialism; however, most felt that they were just replacing their Western Imperialism overlords and resented the Japanese.

• Anti-imperial resistance:

  • Indian National Congress: Was formed before WWI. After WWI, it became a powerful voice for Indian independence.

    • Amritsar Massacre: This was, in short, when British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indian nationalists, resulting in deaths and injuries, which fueled the desire for independence.

    • Mohandas Gandhi - He emerged as the leader of the Indian National Congress and used civil disobedience.

    • The Salt March: The first non-violent protest against the British where, in short, was when Gandhi led a march to the Arabian Sea to produce salt, challenging British laws on salt.

  • West African Resistance (strikes/congresses) to French rule:

    • Led by West Africans educated in Europe.

    • Jomo Kenyatta (London).

    • Leopold Senghor (Paris).

• Non-aggression Pact: An agreement between nations to avoid conflict, often involving the signing of treaties that outline mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty.

• Causes of World War II:

  • WWI Peace Treaty

  • Economic and political fracture

  • Diplomatic fracture

  • Hitlers leadership

• Causes more in-depth:

  • The unsustainable peace settlement after World War I (the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations).

  • The global economic crisis was caused by the Great Depression.

  • Continued imperialist aspirations (League of Nations mandates, Manchuko, Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, German aggression, and expansionism in Europe/Italy).

  • Rise of power of Fascist and Totalitarian ways that led to aggressive militarianism of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler.

• Consequences of World War II:

  • The bloodiest war in human history. Killed 75 million, 2/3 were civilians. This war differed from WWI because most deaths came from civilian casualties.

  • Perceptions changed on colonial empires, racism, and international relations.

  • Led to the Cold War between the two new superpowers that emerged from WWII (USA and USSR).

• World War II was a total war. Governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda and intensified forms of nationalism, to get the population to participate in efforts towards the war.

• Governments also used fascism and communism to mobilize populations and justify their military actions, often portraying the enemy as a threat to national security and societal values.

• Western democracies mobilizing for war:

  • Great Britain under Winston Churchill (Allies)

  • The United States under Franklin Roosevelt (Allies)

    • The U.S had a policy of isolationism at first.

  • Lend-Lease Act, Atlantic Charter, Island hopping (Pacific), strong industrial production (The U.S), women in the labor force, Pacific-Guadalcanal (Coral Sea, a midway/turning point), and Europe D-Day (Battle of the Bulge).

  • Japan under Hideki Tojo (Axis)

  • Italy under Benito Mussolini (Axis)

    • Government controlled by the military, new order in East Asia, attack on Pearl Harbor, and they did not allow women to work or join the military.

• Totalitarian states mobilizing for war:

  • Germany and Adolf Hitler.

  • Blitzkrieg War.

  • Battle of Britain.

  • War on the Soviet Union.

  • Used Forced labor camps for production.

  • USSR under Joseph Stalin.

  • The Seige of Linengard.

  • Battle of Stalingrad (turning point of the European theatre)

  • Battle of Kursk (beginning of the end of the Nazis)

  • Women working and fighting in the military.

• New military technology and new tactics, including the atomic bomb, fire-bombing, and the waging of “total war,” led to increased casualties.

• The rise of extremist groups (Led to the holocaust and genocide)

• Heinrich Himmler - The leader of the Nazis (carried out the holocaust).

• Nuremberg Laws - A series of laws that banned Jews from certain jobs and schools.

• Ghettos - Jews were forced to live in certain sections of the cities, and they lived in Ghettos.

• “Final Solution” - The Nazis decided to go from just persecution of Jews to mass killing them.

• 6 million people died in the Holocaust, not including other non-Jewish people (Romanians, Poles, the Disabled, homosexuals, and others).

• Genocide, ethnic violence, or attempted destruction of specific populations:

  • Armenians in the Ottoman Empire during and after World War 1 (genocide).

  • Cambodia during the late 1970s (genocide)

  • Tutsi in Rwanda in the 1990s (genocide)

  • Ukraine in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and 1930s (genocide by famine)

  • Bosnia ethnic cleansing 1990s (genocide)

  • Darfur in Sudan 2003 (genocide)

• Famine:

  • Holodomor in Ukraine: The man-made famine that resulted in the deaths of millions during the early 1930s, largely due to Soviet policies under Joseph Stalin.

• Disease:

  • Influenza pandemic: This global outbreak in 1918-1919 infected about one-third of the world's population and led to an estimated 50 million deaths, significantly impacting societies across the globe.

• Firebombing/Atomic Bomb:

  • Dresden/Hamburg in Germany: The firebombing of Dresden and Hamburg during World War II resulted in extensive destruction and loss of life, with the raids aimed at crippling German morale and infrastructure.

  • Tokoyo and Japan: The use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 marked a pivotal moment in World War II, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of the war, while also raising ethical questions about nuclear warfare and its lasting effects on civilian populations.

• Genocide:

  • Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire/Turkey: The extermination of 1.5 million Armenians by the Ottoman Empire during World War I is one of the first modern genocides, characterized by forced deportations, mass killings, and the destruction of Armenian culture.

  • Holocaust

  • Khmer Rouge and Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge was led by Pol Pot and oversaw the massacre of 1.7 million Cambodians through forced labor, famine, and executions, aiming to create a classless agrarian society.

  • Genocide in Bosnia: The genocide in Bosnia during the Bosnian War involved the murder and ethnic cleansing of Bosniak Muslims and Bosnian Croats, resulting in the death of 100,000 people, with the Srebrenica massacre being one of the most memorable events.

  • Rwanda (Hutu Vs Tutsi): This was an extreme violence between the Hutu majority and the Tutsi minority, resulting in the murder of 800,000 Tutsis and Hutus in just 100 days, driven by ethnic hatred and political instability.

Unit 8

• World War Increased anti-imperialist sentiment, which contributed to the dissolution of empires and the restructuring of states. (Decolonization). 

  • Colonies wanted greater self-rule and/or full independence.

  • The UK, France, and other imperial powers weakened, and thus they couldn’t resist these independence movements.

  • The Cold War left two huge superpowers to get help from (the U.S or the USSR)

• End of WWII = Cold War!

  • Tehran conference: A meeting held where leaders of the U.S., the UK, and the Soviet Union discussed the strategy to defeat Nazi Germany and the post-war reorganization of Europe.

  • Yalta conference: A meeting where President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin made decisions regarding the reorganization of post-war Europe and the future of Germany.

  • Potsdam conference: A gathering of the Allied leaders where they negotiated terms for the end of World War II, including the administration of Germany and the establishment of post-war order in Europe.

• Technological and economic gains during WWII shifted the global balance of power. Power was moved away from Europe and towards the U.S and USSR.

  • The USA was largely untouched during WWII, thus, they prospered after WWII and developed new technology.

  • Advancements in medicine - penicillin.

  • Refrigeration for food.

  • Plywood for construction.

  • The USSR developed nuclear weapons and thus began the arms race between the two powers.

  • Hydrogen bonds.

  • Military Industrial Complex.

• The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, which led to ideological conflict and a power struggle between capitalism and communism across the globe.

• Conflicts in international affairs:

  • The USSR and its satellite countries (East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Romania) - The “Soviet bloc”.

  • World revolution: Workers would overthrow capitalism everywhere, which inspired soviet policy.

  • Containment - George Kennan, a policy of the U.S to not let the Soviet Union spread its communist influence.

  • Truman Doctrine - Inspired by containment, it helped Greece and Turkey with economic aid.

  • The Marshall Plan - The U.S containment policy towards Europe, rebuilding Europe after WWII.

  • Council of Mutual Economic Assistance - The Soviet version of the Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe.

• Space race and arms race:

  • Space race: One way the Cold War played out was that it began with Sputnik, which was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, marking the first human-made object to orbit the Earth. It inspired the development of new technology for the Space Race that led to civilian use of technology. (Satellite communication, GPS, etc.)

  • Mutual Assured Destruction: (MAD). With the creation of the ICBM, which was an intercontinental ballistic missile, both superpowers could deliver nuclear weapons over long distances, escalating the tension and fear of nuclear war during the Cold War. This allowed both powers to realize they couldn’t start a war, leading to a balanced way to keep the peace.

• Non-Aligned Movement: Sukarno is in Indonesia, and Kwame Nkrumah is in Ghana.

  • Jawaharlal Nehru, India, served as the Prime Minister of India. He was viewed as one of the most important leaders of of Bandung conference.

  • Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana, led Ghana to independence from Britain, advocated for unity among Africans, established boundaries through the organization of African unity, he became one of the most respected African leaders of the post-war period.

  • Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt, he served three terms as the Egyptian president. he helped support the negotiation at the Bandung conference, and he supported the Pan Arab movement.

  • Sukarno, Indonesia, was the first president of Indonesia, organized and hosted the Bandung conference, criticized the U.S and USSR, but accepted aid from both of them.

• Berlin Blockade = a significant event during the Cold War, when the Soviet Union blocked all ground routes into West Berlin from June 1948 to May 1949, prompting the Allies to launch the Berlin Airlift to supply the city with food and fuel.

• Tale of 2 Germanies - Germany was divided into two different countries, East and West Germany, with Berlin being divided into two as well.

• Berlin Wall -To prevent East Germans from sneaking over to the West through Berlin. The East German government and the Soviets began to build the wall in 1961. When it came down in 1989, it marked the end of the Cold War.

• Military Alliances formed:

  • NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was a military alliance formed primarily for mutual defense against the threat posed by the Soviet Union.

  • The Warsaw Pact: A response to NATO, it was a military alliance among the Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellite states to counterbalance NATO and bolster communist solidarity.

• Led to nuclear proliferation:

  • Arms race between the U.S and the USSR - both countries built up their military and nuclear arsenal in competition with each other.

• Close calls like the Cuban Missile Crisis and others led to the desire to limit the increase of nuclear weapons.

  • Nuclear test ban theory: An international agreement aimed at prohibiting all nuclear tests, which was a response to the fears of nuclear warfare.

  • Nuclear proliferation theory: The concept that refers to the spread of nuclear weapons and technology to additional countries, raising concerns about increased tensions and the potential for nuclear conflict.

  • Anti-nuclear weapons movement

• Proxy wars:

  • Usually, the U.S or the USSR were indirectly helping either side of the war.

  • Through local wars, these took place, they became a part of the larger Cold War conflict.

  • Korean War: The U.S. supported South Korea, and the USSR, along with China, provided support to North Korea, highlighting the global ideological battle between communism and capitalism.

  • Angolan Civil War: Where the U.S. backed the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) while the USSR and Cuba supported the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), ultimately representing a proxy battle between competing superpowers.

  • Sandinista-Contras conflict in Nicaragua: The Sandinistas, who sought to implement socialist reforms, received support from the USSR, while the Contras, a rebel group funded by the U.S., aimed to overthrow the Sandinista government, further illustrating the Cold War's impact on Latin America.

  • Vietnam War: The Vietnam War saw the U.S. intervening to support the South Vietnamese government against the communist North, backed by China and the USSR, demonstrating the broader ideological struggle of the Cold War.

  • Domino Theory: It was the idea that the spread of communism in one country would lead to a chain reaction of communist takeovers in neighboring countries.

• As a result of internal tension and Japanese aggression, the Chinese Communists seized power. These changes in China led to a communist revolution.

  • Japanese aggression weakened China and the Nationalist government of the Republic of China.

  • Internal tension: Communist (Mao Zedong) vs nationalist (Chang Kaishek) = Communist wins.

  • The Nationalists fled to Taiwan and established a separate government there, but there is still a problem today between the “two Chinas”.

• In Communist China, the government controlled the national economy through the Great Leap Forward:

  • Land reform: Peasant lands were organized into communes.

  • Those who protested were sent to re-education camps or killed.

  • Like Stalin’s 5-Year-Plan, it led to starvation and famine. 20 Milion Chinese died.

  • Cultural Revolution: An effort after the Great Leap Forward to make China more committed to communism. Red Guards were sent out to arrest and take people who disagreed with Mao or spoke out against the policies. This also caused millions to die.

• Movements to redistribute land and resources developed within states in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, sometimes advocating for communism or socialism.

• Land and resource redistribution:

  • Communist revolution for Vietnamese independence: North Vietnam (communist), but South Vietnam was slow to redistribute land, and thus they remained unpopular (A reason why the North ended up winning the Vietnam War).

  • Mengistu-Haile Mariam in Ethiopia: Led a Marxist coup and implemented radical land reforms that aimed to abolish feudalism, ultimately leading to widespread changes and state control over agriculture.

  • Land reform in Kerala and other states within India: The introduction of land reform laws sought to reduce landlordism and improve peasants' rights, which enhanced agricultural productivity and led to a decline in poverty.

  • White Revolution in Iran: This program aimed to rapidly modernize Iran by redistributing land to peasants, nationalizing forests, and extending women's rights, which led to social upheaval and the rise of opposition against the Shah.

• Nationalist leaders and parties in Asia and Africa sought different degrees of autonomy within or independence from imperial powers.

• Nationalist leaders and parties:

  • Indian National Congress: This political party played a crucial role in the Indian independence movement, advocating for greater self-governance and eventually leading the call for complete independence from British rule through a combination of political activism and nonviolent resistance.

  • Ho Chi Minh in French Indochina (Vietnam): A communist leader of North Vietnam. He used nationalism to unite North and South Vietnam under communism. '

  • Kwame Nkrumah: A prominent figure in the decolonization of Ghana, he was the leader of the Convention People's Party and sought to unite various African nations under a common goal of independence from colonial rule.

  • Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt: A key leader in the Arab nationalism movement, he is known for his efforts to modernize the country and promote pan-Arab unity, particularly through the nationalization of the Suez Canal.

• After the end of WWII, some colonies negotiated independence, while others gained independence through armed struggle.

• Negotiated independence:

  • India from the British Empire: India gained independence through nonviolent resistance led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi and negotiations with British authorities, culminating in the partition that created India and Pakistan.

  • The Gold Coast from the British Empire: The Gold Coast became the first sub-Saharan African colony to gain independence, largely through the efforts of Kwame Nkrumah and the Convention People's Party, who advocated for self-governance and mobilized mass support for the cause.

  • French West Africa: French West Africa achieved independence in a wave of decolonization across Africa, marked by the efforts of leaders like Léopold Sédar Senghor, who championed cultural and political change while navigating negotiations with French authorities.

• Independence through armed struggle:

  • Algeria from the French Empire: Algeria gained independence after a brutal and prolonged war of independence against French colonial rule, which employed guerrilla tactics and rallied widespread support among the Algerian population.

  • Angola's independence from Portugal followed a liberation struggle led by nationalist movements like the MPLA, supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba, against Western powers.

  • Vietnam from the French Empire: Vietnam gained independence through a conflict that escalated into the First Indochina War, which ultimately led to the end of French colonial rule in the region.

• Regional, religious, and ethnic movements challenged colonial rule and inherited imperial boundaries.

• Regional, religious, and ethnic movements:

  • Muslim League: In British India, the movement began that would eventually lead to the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan.

  • Quebecois separate movement in Canada - A mix of negotiation and armed struggle/conflict.

  • Biafra secessionists in Nigeria - A mix of negotiation and armed struggle/conflict.

• The redrawing of new political boundaries after the withdrawal of former colonial authorities led to the creation of new states.

• States created by the redrawing of political boundaries:

  • Israel: A conflict with Palestine where territorial disputes and historical grievances have led to ongoing violence and political instability.

  • Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot.

  • Pakistan: Was partitioned from India, Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan.

• The redrawing of political boundaries in some cases led to conflict as well as population displacement, including those related to the Partition of India and the creation of the state of Israel.

• In newly developed states after World War II, governments often took on a role in guiding economic life to promote development.

  • Gamal Abdel Nasser promoted economic development in Egypt: Nationalized the economy ,including the Suez Canal. Led to the Suez Canal Crisis when Egypt's nationalization of the canal prompted military intervention from Britain, France, and Israel, resulting in a shift in power.

  • Indira Gandhi’s economic policies in India: She implemented a series of five-year socialist plans and adopted the Green Revolution. It was complicated and was mixed with success and failure.

  • Julius Nyerere’s modernization of Tanzania: He focused on agriculture through policies like Ujamaa, which aimed to promote collective farming and self-reliance, although this faced challenges and led to economic difficulties.

  • Sirimavo Bandaranaike’s economic policies in Sri Lanka: As the world’s first female prime minister, she instituted agricultural reforms aimed at increasing self-sufficiency and reducing reliance on imported food, while also promoting rural development and education, but her policies faced obstacles such as political opposition and fluctuating market conditions.

• The Migration of former colonial subjects to Imperial Metropoles (former colonizing country) maintained cultural ties between the colony and the Metropole

• Migrations:

  • South Asians to Britain

  • Algerians to France

  • Filipinos to the United States

• Many individuals and groups opposed the trend of conflict (non-violent and peaceful). But some individuals and groups intensified the conflicts (violent).

• Responses that intensified conflict:

  • Chile under Augusto Pinochet: He ruled Chile as a dictator…violently.

  • Spain under Francisco Franco: Franco established a totalitarian regime, suppressing dissent through brutality and censorship during and after the Spanish Civil War.

  • Uganda under Idi Amin: He used violence to target political enemies and specific ethnic groups.

  • The buildup of the Military Industrial Complex: The U.S and Soviet Union were in a self-feeding sycyle that means it would be very difficult to ramp down military spending.

• Groups and individuals that challenged many wars of the century:

  • Mohandas Gandhi: In India, Gandhi led the Indian National Congress and led non-violent boycotts, marches, and fasts to protest British rule.

  • Martin Luther King Jr. (The United States): He was a Civil Rights Activist who used marches, constitutional court cases, boycotts, and more that led to a new Civil Rights legislation (laws).

  • Nelson Mandela (South Africa): He was a socialist lawyer who led the movement against Apartheid and became the first black president of South Africa, promoting reconciliation and social justice.

• Militaries and militarized states often responded to these movements by further intensifying conflict:

  • Some Soviet satellite nations protested against Soviet control, like in Poland and Hungary. In Hungray, the USSR invaded and crushed their opposition.

  • 1968 = The year of the revolt

    • Chzeckoslovakia: Prague Spring was when a period of political liberalization was met with military intervention from the Soviet Union, leading to a harsh crackdown on reformist movements.

    • Yugoslavia: They protested against authoritarianism.

    • Poland and Northern Ireland revolted for religious reasons, like the civil rights movement that sought to address inequality between Catholics and Protestants, leading to political and social unrest.

    • Brazil: They revolted for social and economic reasons like land reform and redistribution of wealth, which were driven by widespread dissatisfaction with the existing injustices in society.

    • Student protests and marches in Japan, France, and the U.S. (Some resulted in violence by police or military - Kent State Massacre in the U.S)

• Some movements used violence against civilians to achieve political aims:

  • Shining Path: A terrorist group in Peru by the Khmer Rouge and Mao Zedong that sought to overthrow the Peruvian government by using violence and terrorism.

  • Al-Qaeda: An Islamic terrorist group that was founded by Osama bin Laden, which they committed acts of terrorism in many countries. The most notable was the 9/11 attacks (not cool guys).

• The end of the Cold War:

• 1. Advances in U.S military and technological developments.

  • The SDI, or Star Wars program, was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from potential nuclear attacks, which played a role in the Cold War's strategic dynamics. (Pretty much the U.S threatening to use lasers??)

  • The Soviets couldn’t keep up with the U.S innovations, and between the two countries, their relationship was getting a lot better.

• 2. The Soviet Union’s costly and failed invasion of Afghanistan.

  • This was the end of detente, or in simple terms, the easing of strained relations between the superpowers. The U.S armed and supported the Islamic guerrilla forces fighting the Soviets. This led to an Afghan Civil War that led to the rise of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda.

  • The failed invasion of Afghanistan was when the Soviet Union attempted to impose its influence in the region, ultimately leading to decades of conflict and instability that reshaped international relations.

• 3. Public discontent and economic weakness in communist countries.

  • Chernobyl disaster and the secret surrounding it: The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 exposed the flaws and dangers of nuclear power, leading to widespread public outrage and a loss of faith in the Soviet government, which had tried to suppress information about the incident.

• The fall of the Berlin Wall (A wall between West and East Berlin) marked a symbolic end to the Cold War, and two years later, the USSR broke apart.

• The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union:

  • Gorbachev (He was a liberal Soviet and knew the USSR was going to shyt) became the leader of the USSR and with his reforms, perestroika and glasnost opened up the Soviet Union, which led to its collapse.

  • Glasnost: In simple terms, it is a policy introduced by Gorbachev that aimed to promote transparency and freedom of information within the government, allowing citizens to express their ideas and grievances openly.

  • Perestroika: This policy focused on restructuring the economy, encouraging market reforms, and reducing the government's control over economic activity, contributing significantly to the disintegration of the Soviet command economy.

Unit 9 (last one!!)

• After WWII, there was an increasing interest in maintaining international security - organizations like NATO, the United Nations, the International Criminal Court in The Hague (prosecutes war crimes), and NGOs (Amnesty International, Doctors Without Borders) to provide international aid to those in need.

• War in the Gulf

  • Iraq wanted to gain more control of oil reserves, so it invaded Kuwait in 1990 under Saddam Hussein, who was the president of Iraq at the time, believing that this would bolster Iraq's economy and establish greater regional dominance.

  • The United Nations and the Persian Gulf: In response to the invasion, the United Nations condemned Iraq's actions and imposed economic sanctions, leading to the formation of a force led by the United States to liberate Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm in 1991.

  • In 2003, a coalition of countries, mostly the US and Britain, invaded Iraq to oust Hussein. Hussein was captured in December 2003, and a democratic government was formed in 2005. Hussein was a controversial figure in the Middle East, known for his oppressive regime and use of violence against political opponents, which significantly shaped the landscape of the region.

  • Despite conflicts and terrorism between Sunni, Shiites, and Kurds groups, a Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani, and a Shia minister, Nouri al-Maliki, were elected, but they still face several challenges

• Taliban, Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden

  • Afghans opposed communism and fought back until the Soviets withdrew troops, leaving a power void that warring factions vied to fill.

  • Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist regime, filled the void after 14 years of fighting and established control over much of Afghanistan, implementing strict interpretations of Islamic law, which led to widespread suppression of women's rights and cultural freedoms.

  • Provided a haven for Osama bin Laden, the Saudi leader of the international terrorist network Al Qaeda, who specifically despised the US

  • US:

    1. Supports Israel

    2. Had troops stationed in Saudi Arabia

    3. It is the primary agent of globalization, believed to be infecting Islamic culture through the spread of Western ideals and consumerism, leading to both cultural exchange and tension.

  • On September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda attacked the US by hijacking 4 US planes and flying 2 of them into the World Trade Centre in New York, 1 into the Pentagon, and 1 into a field in Pennsylvania - 3000 people died

  • The US immediately declared war on terrorism and invaded Afghanistan - the Taliban was removed from power, and Osama bin Laden was killed, but Al Qaeda still survives.

  • Many terror attacks linked to Islamic fundamentalists still occur throughout Europe and the Middle East.

World Trade and Cultural Exchange

• End of the Cold War and the Internet/technology resulted in a new and strong wave of global connection, the last obstacle to true global interaction

• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the European Union (EU) were created to unite global currency/trade further. These agreements aim to facilitate smoother trade processes and enhance economic cooperation between member nations, ultimately leading to increased cultural exchanges and mutual understanding.

• English became the language of global business and communication.

• The EU bandied Europe into a single market to give the US some competition in the 90s. This period marked a significant transition where borders became less significant, influencing not just economics but also politics and culture, as nations became more interdependent.

  • Has 3 branches: executive, legislative, judicial

  • The Eurozone, a monetary union formed in 1999, included all but 3 nations: the UK, Sweden, and Denmark.

• Economies faltered again during the economic crisis in the late 2000s - stronger economies like Germany were able to remain stable, while over-extended economies collapsed badly

• Global Culture

  • Some significant examples of pop culture are:

  1. The Olympics

  2. World Cup Soccer

  3. Reggae Music

  4. Bollywood

  5. Social Media

  6. McDonald’s

• Rise of China and India

  • China has become a huge economic and industrial force in recent years - special economic zones have been developed to be exempt from communist rules and have since become worldwide production centres worth 100s of billions of dollars

  • Although China has severely limited internet freedom and remains politically aged

  • India is one of the fastest-growing economies. poor until the 90s, highly educated Indians brought the world of tech in Silicon Valley to India and made it a global hub for technology

  • Both are now nuclear powers with large military forces, but both also have serious problems with poverty and global emissions

• Global Alphabet Soup

  • The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) - later World Trade Organization - was developed to reduce barriers to international trade - has 153 member states.

  • Group of Six (G6): forum for the world’s major industrialized democracies - original members US, Britain, West Germany, Italy, Japan, and France.

  • Become G7 in 1977 (Canada) and G8 in 1997 (Russia), but became G7 again after Russia’s involvement in Ukraine

  • G20 is separate - 20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors. The G20 plays a crucial role in global economic governance, especially in addressing issues such as financial stability and sustainable development.

Environmental Change

• Global integration has caused global environmental concerns

• The green revolution of 50s and 60s led to the destruction of traditional landscapes, reduced species diversity, and social conflicts to produce inexpensive food

• Global warming is worsening at the fastest pace ever due to human activity - the outcome is uncertain, but industrialized countries are not doing enough to limit their environmental damage

Global Health Crises

• Epidemics in countries with poor sanitation are still an issue - WHO (World Health Organization) works to combat them

• AIDS is a major crisis - 25% of African adults live with AIDS, and treatment is expensive

• Global health issues highlight the global disparities that disproportionately affect low-income individuals

Age of the Computer

• The personal computer was developed in the 1980s, followed by the Internet

• In the 1990s, computers became commonplace in homes

• Social Media has changed the way information spreads and has brought people closer together

• The Internet has also been a method of government surveillance and storing of user data, which is considered by many a breach of privacy.

We done.