Independence Movements and Global Changes in the 20th Century

Colonial Oppression

European exploitation of resources and denial of rights.

Pan-Africanism

Unity movement for African nations' independence.

World War II

Conflict that spurred African demands for rights.

UN Charter (1945)

Document supporting self-determination for nations.

Education & Urbanization

Created elites who led independence movements.

Ghana (1957)

First sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence.

Algerian War of Independence

Conflict (1954-1962) against French colonial rule.

Mau Mau Uprising

Kenyan revolt (1952-1960) against British settlers.

Political Effects

Emergence of fragile states with military coups.

Economic Effects

Dependency on monoculture exports and foreign aid.

Economic Ruin After WWII

Europe's inability to sustain colonial empires.

U.S. Pressure

American opposition to colonialism during Cold War.

Resistance & Rebellions

Nationalist movements demanding decolonization.

Suez Crisis (1956)

Failed invasion showing Britain's reduced global power.

British White Paper (1939)

Limited Jewish immigration to Palestine, retaining control.

Macmillan's Speech (1960)

Acknowledged inevitability of African independence.

French Union & Community

France's attempt to maintain influence post-independence.

British Commonwealth

Voluntary association of former colonies.

Françafrique

France's continued influence through economic ties.

U.S. Goals

Prevent communism via economic aid and alliances.

U.S.S.R. Goals

Support anti-colonial movements to expand influence.

Non-Aligned Movement

Group of states avoiding alignment with superpowers.

Nuclear Deterrence (MAD)

Mutually Assured Destruction prevents direct conflict.

Bipolar Balance

Maintaining parity in arms to avoid escalation.

Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)

Banned atmospheric nuclear tests.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)

Prevented spread of nuclear weapons globally.

SALT I & II

Strategic talks to limit nuclear arsenals.

Helsinki Accords

Agreement to respect borders and human rights.

Proxy Conflicts

Indirect conflicts between superpowers in Cold War.

Vietnam War

U.S. conflict against communist North Vietnam.

Korean War

Conflict between North Korea and South Korea.

Angola Civil War

U.S. and USSR supported opposing factions.

Afghanistan War

USSR invasion; U.S. funded mujahedeen.

Détente

Period of relaxed tensions during the 1970s.

Re-escalation

Increased tensions under Reagan in the 1980s.

Final Collapse

Arms race contributed to USSR's 1991 dissolution.

British Raj

Period of British rule in India (1858-1947).

Divide-and-Rule Policies

British strategy to exploit religious divides in India.

British Railways

Built to transport resources, not for Indians.

Economic Impact of Railways

Exported goods, undermined local economies.

Partition of Bengal

1905 division heightened Hindu-Muslim rivalry.

All-India Muslim League

Formed to protect Muslim interests in India.

Partition of India

1947 division into India and Pakistan.

Mass Violence Post-Partition

~1 million killed, 15 million displaced.

Metropoles

Imperial cities where former colonies migrated.

Anti-Rightist Campaign

Crackdown on intellectuals, ~550,000 labeled as Rightists.

Great Leap Forward

Failed industrialization campaign causing famine.

Cultural Revolution

Mao's campaign to purge capitalist elements.

Economic Restructuring

Shift from Maoism to pragmatism under Deng.

Four Modernizations

Reforms in agriculture, industry, defense, and technology.

Household Responsibility System

Farmers sell surplus for profit, boosting output.

Special Economic Zones

Areas encouraging foreign investment and capitalism.

Decentralization

Local governments manage enterprises, fostering competition.

GDP Growth

Averaged ~9% annually during Deng's reforms.

GDP Growth

Average annual growth rate of ~9%.

Urbanization

Increase in population living in urban areas.

Inequality

Disparity in wealth and resources distribution.

Private Enterprise

Businesses owned by individuals, not the state.

Tiananmen Square Massacre

1989 suppression of political dissent in China.

Economic Stagnation

Lack of growth in the Soviet economy.

Outdated Factories

Soviet factories lacked modern technology and efficiency.

Low Productivity

Inefficient output of goods in the USSR.

Consumer Goods Shortage

Limited availability of everyday products like bread.

Command Economy

Economic system where the government controls production.

Invasion of Afghanistan

Soviet military action to support a communist regime.

U.S. Response

Actions included embargo, boycott, and military aid.

Public Morale Decline

Decrease in public spirit due to war and censorship.

Underground Dissidents

Groups opposing the Soviet regime, producing samizdat.

Perestroika

Gorbachev's economic restructuring reforms.

Glasnost

Gorbachev's policy of increased openness and transparency.

Shining Path

Peruvian Maoist guerrilla group founded by Guzmán.

Guerrilla Warfare

Irregular warfare by small groups against larger forces.

Counterinsurgency Methods

Government tactics to suppress insurgent groups.

Economic Globalization

Integration of global economies through trade and technology.

WTO

World Trade Organization regulating international trade.

NAFTA

Trade agreement removing barriers between U.S., Canada, Mexico.

Cultural Homogenization

Spread of Western culture and consumerism globally.

Manufacturing Economy

Dominated 19th-20th centuries, focused on physical goods.

Knowledge Economy

Driven by information and technology since late 20th century.

Global North

Shifted to high-skill jobs, leaving manufacturing behind.

Global South

Became manufacturing centers, e.g., China, Vietnam.

Suffrage Movements

Campaigns for women's voting rights in various countries.

Roe v. Wade

1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision on abortion rights.

UN CEDAW Treaty

1979 treaty aimed at eliminating gender discrimination.

Title IX

1972 U.S. law banning gender discrimination in education.

First Wave Feminism

Focused on voting rights from late 1800s to 1920s.

Second Wave Feminism

Addressed workplace and reproductive rights, 1960s-80s.

Third Wave Feminism

Emphasizes intersectionality and global rights since 1990s.

Climate Change

Global warming caused by CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels.

London Smog

1952 pollution event that killed over 12,000 people.

Deforestation

Clearing forests, notably Amazon, reduces biodiversity and CO₂.

Green Revolution

Increased food production via fertilizers and GMOs, 1940s-70s.

Kyoto Protocol

1997 international treaty to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Paris Agreement

2015 accord to combat climate change globally.

Trench Warfare

Combat method characterized by deep trenches in WWI.

Treaty of Versailles

1919 agreement that blamed Germany for WWI.

Zionism

Movement for establishing a Jewish state in Palestine.

Balfour Declaration

1917 British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Nakba

Term for Palestinian displacement during Israel's 1948 independence.

Nakba

Palestinian displacement during Israel's establishment.