AP PSYCH:

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.

Cultural Norms

Shared expectations or rules within a social group that guide behavior.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of an experiment influence the results.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where someone overestimates their abilities, knowledge, or predictions.

Peer Review

A process in which experts in a field evaluate research before publication to ensure validity and reliability.

Psychodynamic Approach

A psychological perspective that focuses on unconscious drives, early childhood experiences, and the dynamics between the id, ego, and superego.

Behavioral Approach

Focuses on observable behavior and the ways it is learned or conditioned.

Cognitive Approach

Focuses on how we process information, think, remember, and solve problems.

Humanistic Approach

Emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and personal growth.

Biological Approach

Focuses on the physiological processes, genetics, and the nervous system's role in behavior.

Evolutionary Approach

Emphasizes how natural selection and evolution shape behavior and mental processes.

Sociocultural Approach

Focuses on how social and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes.

Case Study

A research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single individual or a small group.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle of keeping participant data private and secure.

Confounding Variables

Variables that interfere with the interpretation of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment, used for comparison.

Correlational Research

A type of research that examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the nature and results of a study after it’s completed.

Deception Research

A type of research in which participants are misled about the purpose or nature of the study.

Dependent Variable

The variable being measured in an experiment; it's affected by the independent variable.

Double-Blind Study

A research method in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

Experiment

A research method that manipulates one variable to determine its effect on another.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Falsifiability

The principle that a theory or hypothesis must be able to be proven false through testing.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings apply to other settings, populations, or times.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Informed Assent

When minors or individuals unable to provide full consent agree to participate in research after being informed of the study’s nature.

Informed Consent

Ethical requirement where participants are fully informed about the study's purpose and procedures and agree to participate voluntarily.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A group that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

Likert Scales

A type of survey scale that measures respondents’ attitudes or opinions by asking them to rate statements.

Meta-analysis

A statistical method that combines the results of multiple studies to identify patterns or trends.

Naturalistic Observation

Research method where behaviors are observed in their natural environment without intervention.

Operational Definitions

Clear, specific definitions of variables in terms of how they are measured or manipulated.

Placebo

An inactive substance or treatment used as a control in an experiment.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon where participants experience perceived improvements in their condition simply because they believe they are receiving treatment.

Professional Ethics

Ethical guidelines and standards that guide research and professional conduct.

Qualitative Research

Research focused on understanding experiences, motivations, or processes, often using non-numerical data such as interviews.

Quantitative Research

Research focused on gathering numerical data and analyzing it statistically.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups randomly to minimize bias.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify the results and ensure consistency.

Single-Blind Study

A study where the participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency for participants to answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others.

Structured Interviews

Interviews with standardized questions that allow for comparison across participants.

Survey

A method of gathering data by asking people questions, often in the form of questionnaires.

Theory

A well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the world based on scientific evidence that can predict future events.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is intended to measure.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two peaks or modes.

Central Tendency

Measures of the center of a data set (mean, median, mode).

Correlation

A relationship between two variables, where changes in one variable are related to changes in another.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure (ranging from -1 to +1) that quantifies the strength and direction of a correlation between two variables.

Convenience Sampling

A non-random sampling method where participants are selected based on ease of access.

Directionality Problem

In correlational studies, the difficulty in determining which variable is causing the other.

Effect Size

A measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon or experimental effect.

Mean

The average of a data set, calculated by summing all the values and dividing by the number of values.

Median

The middle value in a data set when the values are ordered from least to greatest.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases as the other decreases.

Negative Skew

A distribution where the left tail is longer than the right, indicating most values are high.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution where most values fall near the mean.

Percentile Rank

A measure of relative standing indicating the percentage of scores below a specific value.

Population

The entire group of individuals or items that a study aims to make inferences about.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together.

Positive Skew

A distribution where the right tail is longer than the left, indicating most values are low.

Random Sample

A sample where every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores to move toward the average over time.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

Sample

A subset of a population selected for research.

Sampling Bias

When certain members of a population are more likely to be included in a sample than others, leading to inaccurate results.

Scatterplot

A graph that displays the relationship between two variables.

Skew

The asymmetry in a distribution of data.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out the values in a data set are around the mean.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that a result or relationship is not due to chance.

Third Variable Problem

When a third variable influences both the independent and dependent variables in a study, creating a spurious correlation.