AP PSYCH:

Unit 0: Science Practices Vocab

Perspectives/Biases

• Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

• Cultural norms: Shared expectations and rules that guide behavior of people within social groups.

• Experimenter bias: When a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of an experiment influence the participants' responses or data interpretation.

• Hindsight bias: The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome.

• Overconfidence: A cognitive bias where a person’s confidence in their knowledge or abilities is greater than the accuracy of those beliefs.

• Peer review: A process where experts in a field evaluate the research of others to ensure quality and validity before publication.

• Psychodynamic approach: A perspective that emphasizes the influence of unconscious forces and early life experiences on behavior.

• Behavioral approach: Focuses on observable behaviors and their relationship with environmental stimuli.

• Cognitive approach: Focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

• Humanistic approach: Emphasizes human potential, self-actualization, and personal growth.

• Biological approach: Studies the physiological, genetic, and neural mechanisms underlying behavior.

• Evolutionary approach: Focuses on how natural selection and evolutionary principles explain psychological traits.

• Sociocultural approach: Emphasizes the impact of social and cultural factors on behavior and mental processes.

Research Methods

• Case study: An in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or event.

• Confidentiality: The ethical principle of keeping participants' information private.

• Confounding variables: Variables that may interfere with or distort the results of an experiment.

• Control group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison with the experimental group.

• Correlational research: A research method used to examine the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

• Debriefing: The process of informing participants about the purpose and results of a study after it has been completed.

• Deception research: Research in which participants are misled about the purpose or nature of the study.

• Dependent variable: The variable that is measured in an experiment and is affected by the independent variable.

• Double-blind study: A study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is in the experimental or control group to prevent bias.

• Experiment: A research method that manipulates one variable to observe the effect on another variable.

• Experimental group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or independent variable.

• Falsifiability: The ability of a theory to be proven false through testing.

• Generalizability: The extent to which research findings can be applied to settings or populations beyond the study sample.

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

• Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to see its effect on the dependent variable.

• Informed assent: The process where minors or individuals unable to provide full consent agree to participate in a study.

• Informed consent: The ethical requirement that participants understand the nature of the research and agree to participate.

• Institutional review board (IRB): A group that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

• Likert scales: A type of survey scale that asks respondents to rate their level of agreement with statements.

• Meta-analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to determine overall trends.

• Naturalistic observation: A research method where behavior is observed in its natural environment without interference.

• Operational definitions: Clear definitions of variables in terms of how they are measured or manipulated.

• Placebo: A substance or treatment that has no active therapeutic effect, used as a control in experiments.

• Placebo effect: When participants experience a perceived improvement in condition due to believing they are receiving treatment, even if the treatment is inactive.

• Professional ethics: Standards that guide researchers' behavior, ensuring integrity, honesty, and respect for participants.

• Qualitative research: Research focused on understanding experiences, motivations, or processes, often using open-ended data like interviews.

• Quantitative research: Research focused on gathering numerical data and analyzing it statistically.

• Random assignment: The random placement of participants into experimental or control groups to eliminate bias.

• Replication: Repeating a study to verify its results.

• Single-blind study: A study where participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.

• Social desirability bias: The tendency for participants to respond in a way that will be viewed favorably by others.

• Structured interviews: A type of interview where the questions are pre-determined and standardized.

• Survey: A research method that collects data from a large group of people through questionnaires or interviews.

• Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can be used to predict future events.

• Validity: The extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is intended to measure.

Statistics

• Bimodal distribution: A distribution with two distinct peaks or modes.

• Central tendency: A statistical measure that identifies the center of a data set, including mean, median, and mode.

• Correlation: A measure of the relationship between two variables.

• Correlation coefficient: A numerical value between -1 and +1 that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

• Convenience sampling: A sampling technique where participants are selected based on their availability and ease of access.

• Directionality problem: The issue in correlational studies where it’s unclear which variable is causing the other.

• Effect size: A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the magnitude of an experimental effect.

• Mean: The average value in a data set, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.

• Median: The middle value in a data set when the values are ordered.

• Mode: The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

• Negative correlation: A relationship where one variable increases as the other decreases.

• Negative skew: A distribution where the left tail is longer than the right, indicating most values are high.

• Normal curve: A bell-shaped curve representing a distribution where most scores are clustered around the mean.

• Percentile rank: A measure of relative standing, showing the percentage of scores below a particular value.

• Population: The entire group of individuals or items that a study aims to make inferences about.

• Positive correlation: A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together.

• Positive skew: A distribution where the right tail is longer than the left, indicating most values are low.

• Random sample: A sample where every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

• Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

• Regression toward the mean: The tendency for extreme scores to move toward the average over time.

• Representative sample: A sample that closely mirrors the population it is drawn from.

• Sample: A subset of a population selected for research.

• Sampling bias: When certain members of a population are more likely to be selected for a sample than others.

• Scatterplot: A graph that displays the relationship between two quantitative variables.

• Skew: The asymmetry in a distribution, either positive (right-skewed) or negative (left-skewed).

• Standard deviation: A measure of the spread or dispersion of scores in a data set.

• Statistical significance: The likelihood that a result is not due to chance.

• Third variable problem: The possibility that a third variable is affecting both of the variables being studied in a correlation.

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  Unit 0: Science Practices Vocab

  Perspectives/Biases

  • Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.

  • Cultural Norms: Shared expectations or rules within a social group that guide behavior.

  • Experimenter Bias: When a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of an experiment influence the results.

  • Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome.

  • Overconfidence: A cognitive bias where someone overestimates their abilities, knowledge, or predictions.

  • Peer Review: A process in which experts in a field evaluate research before publication to ensure validity and reliability.

  • Psychodynamic Approach: A psychological perspective that focuses on unconscious drives, early childhood experiences, and the dynamics between the id, ego, and superego.

  • Behavioral Approach: Focuses on observable behavior and the ways it is learned or conditioned.

  • Cognitive Approach: Focuses on how we process information, think, remember, and solve problems.

  • Humanistic Approach: Emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and personal growth.

  • Biological Approach: Focuses on the physiological processes, genetics, and the nervous system's role in behavior.

  • Evolutionary Approach: Emphasizes how natural selection and evolution shape behavior and mental processes.

  • Sociocultural Approach: Focuses on how social and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes.

  Research Methods

  • Case Study: A research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single individual or a small group.

  • Confidentiality: The ethical principle of keeping participant data private and secure.

  • Confounding Variables: Variables that interfere with the interpretation of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

  • Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment, used for comparison.

  • Correlational Research: A type of research that examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

  • Debriefing: The process of informing participants about the nature and results of a study after it’s completed.

  • Deception Research: A type of research in which participants are misled about the purpose or nature of the study.

  • Dependent Variable: The variable being measured in an experiment; it's affected by the independent variable.

  • Double-Blind Study: A research method in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

  • Experiment: A research method that manipulates one variable to determine its effect on another.

  • Experimental Group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.

  • Falsifiability: The principle that a theory or hypothesis must be able to be proven false through testing.

  • Generalizability: The extent to which research findings apply to other settings, populations, or times.

  • Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

  • Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

  • Informed Assent: When minors or individuals unable to provide full consent agree to participate in research after being informed of the study’s nature.

  • Informed Consent: Ethical requirement where participants are fully informed about the study's purpose and procedures and agree to participate voluntarily.

  • Institutional Review Board (IRB): A group that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

  • Likert Scales: A type of survey scale that measures respondents’ attitudes or opinions by asking them to rate statements.

  • Meta-analysis: A statistical method that combines the results of multiple studies to identify patterns or trends.

  • Naturalistic Observation: Research method where behaviors are observed in their natural environment without intervention.

  • Operational Definitions: Clear, specific definitions of variables in terms of how they are measured or manipulated.

  • Placebo: An inactive substance or treatment used as a control in an experiment.

  • Placebo Effect: The phenomenon where participants experience perceived improvements in their condition simply because they believe they are receiving treatment.

  • Professional Ethics: Ethical guidelines and standards that guide research and professional conduct.

  • Qualitative Research: Research focused on understanding experiences, motivations, or processes, often using non-numerical data such as interviews.

  • Quantitative Research: Research focused on gathering numerical data and analyzing it statistically.

  • Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental or control groups randomly to minimize bias.

  • Replication: Repeating a study to verify the results and ensure consistency.

  • Single-Blind Study: A study where the participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.

  • Social Desirability Bias: The tendency for participants to answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others.

  • Structured Interviews: Interviews with standardized questions that allow for comparison across participants.

  • Survey: A method of gathering data by asking people questions, often in the form of questionnaires.

  • Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the world based on scientific evidence that can predict future events.

  • Validity: The extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is intended to measure.

  Statistics

  • Bimodal Distribution: A distribution with two peaks or modes.

  • Central Tendency: Measures of the center of a data set (mean, median, mode).

  • Correlation: A relationship between two variables, where changes in one variable are related to changes in another.

  • Correlation Coefficient: A statistical measure (ranging from -1 to +1) that quantifies the strength and direction of a correlation between two variables.

  • Convenience Sampling: A non-random sampling method where participants are selected based on ease of access.

  • Directionality Problem: In correlational studies, the difficulty in determining which variable is causing the other.

  • Effect Size: A measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon or experimental effect.

  • Mean: The average of a data set, calculated by summing all the values and dividing by the number of values.

  • Median: The middle value in a data set when the values are ordered from least to greatest.

  • Mode: The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

  • Negative Correlation: A relationship where one variable increases as the other decreases.

  • Negative Skew: A distribution where the left tail is longer than the right, indicating most values are high.

  • Normal Curve: A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution where most values fall near the mean.

  • Percentile Rank: A measure of relative standing indicating the percentage of scores below a specific value.

  • Population: The entire group of individuals or items that a study aims to make inferences about.

  • Positive Correlation: A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together.

  • Positive Skew: A distribution where the right tail is longer than the left, indicating most values are low.

  • Random Sample: A sample where every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.

  • Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

  • Regression Toward the Mean: The tendency for extreme scores to move toward the average over time.

  • Representative Sample: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

  • Sample: A subset of a population selected for research.

  • Sampling Bias: When certain members of a population are more likely to be included in a sample than others, leading to inaccurate results.

  • Scatterplot: A graph that displays the relationship between two variables.

  • Skew: The asymmetry in a distribution of data.

  • Standard Deviation: A measure of how spread out the values in a data set are around the mean.

  • Statistical Significance: The likelihood that a result or relationship is not due to chance.

  • Third Variable Problem: When a third variable influences both the independent and dependent variables in a study, creating a spurious correlation.

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  Unit 1: Bio Vocab

  1.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment

  • Adoption Studies: Research involving children raised apart from their biological parents to explore the effects of heredity versus environment.

  • Environment: All external conditions that influence an individual, including social, cultural, and physical factors.

  • Eugenics: The belief in improving the human population through selective breeding, often associated with unethical practices.

  • Evolutionary Perspective: Focuses on how behavior and mental processes have evolved through natural selection.

  • Family Studies: Research involving families to understand the influence of genetics versus environment on behavior.

  • Genetic Predisposition: An inherited genetic trait that makes an individual more susceptible to certain behaviors or diseases.

  • Heredity: The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

  • Nature-Nurture Issue: The debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human behavior.

  • Natural Selection: The process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over generations.

  • Twin Studies: Research comparing the similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to understand the roles of heredity and environment.

  1.2 Overview of the Nervous System

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord; responsible for processing and transmitting information.

  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The network of nerves outside the CNS that connects it to the body.

  • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): The part of the PNS that controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.

  • Sympathetic Nervous System: The division of the ANS responsible for the “fight or flight” response, preparing the body for stressful situations.

  • Parasympathetic Nervous System: The division of the ANS that calms the body after a stressful event, promoting rest and digestion.

  • Somatic Nervous System: The part of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements and transmits sensory information to the CNS.

  • Nervous System: The system responsible for receiving, processing, and responding to stimuli through neurons and electrical impulses.

  1.3 The Neuron and Neural Firing

  • Action Potential: A brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters.

  • All-or-Nothing Principle: The principle stating that neurons either fire completely or not at all; there is no partial firing.

  • Axon: The long, thread-like part of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body.

  • Dendrites: Branch-like structures on a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

  • Depolarization: The change in a neuron’s membrane potential that makes it more positive, leading to an action potential.

  • Glial Cells: Supportive cells in the nervous system that provide structural support, nourishment, and insulation for neurons.

  • Interneurons: Neurons that transmit signals between sensory and motor neurons within the CNS.

  • Motor Neurons: Neurons that carry signals from the CNS to muscles and glands.

  • Multiple Sclerosis: A disease where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, disrupting neural communication.

  • Myasthenia Gravis: A neuromuscular disorder where the body’s immune system blocks communication between nerves and muscles.

  • Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released from neurons that transmit signals across synapses to other neurons.

  • Neuron: The basic building block of the nervous system that transmits information throughout the body.

  • Node of Ranvier: Gaps between the myelin sheath along the axon that allow for faster neural transmission.

  • Polarization: The state of a neuron when it is at rest, with a negative charge inside and a positive charge outside.

  • Refractory Period: The period after a neuron fires when it is unable to fire again until it returns to its resting state.

  • Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them.

  • Synapse: The gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.

  • Synaptic Vesicles: Tiny sacs within the axon terminals that contain neurotransmitters.

  • Terminal Buttons: The small knobs at the end of an axon that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse, influencing the activity of the receiving neuron.

  • Receptors: Protein molecules on the surface of the receiving neuron that bind to neurotransmitters, initiating a response in the target cell.

  • Synapse: The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released and received, allowing for communication between the nervous system's cells.