Test 1 study guide

Test 1 Study Sheet: Anatomy & Physiology

Test 1 Study Sheet: Anatomy & Physiology

Chapter 1: The Human Body - An Orientation

Anatomy vs. Physiology

• Anatomy: Study of the structure of body parts (e.g., bones, muscles).

• Physiology: Study of how body parts function (e.g., how muscles contract).

Levels of Structural Organization

1. Chemical Level - Atoms & molecules (e.g., oxygen, water).

2. Cellular Level - Basic units of life (e.g., nerve cells).

3. Tissue Level - Groups of similar cells performing a function (e.g., muscle tissue).

4. Organ Level - Two or more tissues working together (e.g., heart).

5. Organ System Level - Organs working together (e.g., cardiovascular system).

6. Organismal Level - The entire human body.

System Review (FIG 1.3)

• Integumentary System: Protects the body, regulates temperature, sensory input.

  • Organs: Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands.

• Skeletal System: Supports and protects, stores calcium, makes blood cells.

  • Organs: Bones, cartilage, joints.

• Muscular System: Provides movement, generates heat.

  • Organs: Skeletal muscles, tendons.

• Nervous System: Fast control of body functions, sends signals.

  • Organs: Brain, spinal cord, nerves.

• Endocrine System: Produces hormones to regulate body processes.

  • Organs: Thyroid, pituitary gland, adrenal glands.

• Cardiovascular System: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste.

  • Organs: Heart, blood vessels.

• Lymphatic System: Defends against infection, returns leaked fluid to blood.

  • Organs: Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus.

• Respiratory System: Brings in oxygen, removes carbon dioxide.

  • Organs: Lungs, trachea, bronchi.

• Digestive System: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients.

  • Organs: Stomach, intestines, liver.

• Urinary System: Removes waste, regulates water balance.

  • Organs: Kidneys, bladder, urethra.

• Reproductive System: Produces offspring.

  • Organs: Ovaries, testes, uterus.

Homeostasis

• Maintaining a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Controlled by: Nervous & Endocrine systems.

Negative Feedback Loop

• Parts: Stimulus, sensor (receptor), control center, effector.

• Example: Body temperature regulation.

  • Stimulus: Heat.

  • Sensor: Skin nerves detect temperature change.

  • Control Center: Brain (hypothalamus) sends signals.

  • Effector: Sweat glands release sweat to cool the body.

Positive Feedback Loop: Enhances stimulus (e.g., childbirth contractions).

Anatomical Position / Directional Terms

• Anatomical Position: Standing upright, feet forward, palms facing out.

• Directional Terms: Used to describe positions of body parts.

  • Superior: Toward the head.

  • Inferior: Toward the feet.

  • Anterior (Ventral): Front of the body.

  • Posterior (Dorsal): Back of the body.

  • Medial: Toward the midline.

  • Lateral: Away from the midline.

  • Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment.

  • Distal: Farther from the point of attachment.

  • Superficial: Near the surface.

  • Deep: Away from the surface.

Regional Terms (FIG 1.7)

• Axillary: Armpit.

• Brachial: Arm.

• Mental: Chin.

• Femoral: Thigh.

• Buccal: Cheek.

• Cervical: Neck.

• Patellar: Kneecap.

• Lumbar: Lower back.

• Carpal: Wrist.

Body Planes and Sections

• Sagittal Plane: Divides body into left and right.

• Frontal Plane: Divides body into front and back.

• Transverse Plane: Divides body into top and bottom.

Body Cavities and Membranes

• Dorsal Body Cavity:

  • Cranial Cavity: Contains the brain.

  • Vertebral Cavity: Contains the spinal cord.

• Ventral Body Cavity:

  • Thoracic Cavity: Contains heart (pericardial cavity) and lungs (pleural cavities).

  • Abdominopelvic Cavity:

    • Abdominal Cavity: Stomach, intestines, liver.

    • Pelvic Cavity: Bladder, reproductive organs.

• Membranes:

  • Serous Membranes: Line cavities and cover organs.

  • Parietal Layer: Lines cavity walls.

  • Visceral Layer: Covers organs.

Chapter 2: Chemistry Comes Alive

Forms of Energy

• Chemical: Stored in chemical bonds (e.g., ATP).

• Electrical: Movement of charged particles (e.g., nerve impulses).

• Mechanical: Direct movement (e.g., muscle contractions).

• Radiant: Travels in waves (e.g., sunlight).

Mixtures

• Solutions: Small particles, evenly distributed (e.g., salt water).

• Colloids: Larger particles that don’t settle (e.g., milk).

• Suspensions: Large particles that settle over time (e.g., blood).

Chemical Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons; creates ions (charged particles).

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons; can be single, double, or triple bonds.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attraction between polar molecules.

Water

• High Heat Capacity: Absorbs heat without large temperature changes.

• Universal Solvent: Dissolves many substances for chemical reactions.

• Cushioning: Protects organs (e.g., cerebrospinal fluid).

Salts

• Dissociate into ions in water (electrolytes).

• Important for nerve impulses and muscle contractions.

Acids/Bases/pH

• Acids: Release H+ ions (e.g., hydrochloric acid).

  • pH < 7.

• Bases: Release OH- ions (e.g., sodium hydroxide).

  • pH > 7.

• pH Scale: 0-14; 7 is neutral (e.g., water).

Organic Compounds

• Carbohydrates: Provide energy (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides).

• Lipids: Store energy and form cell membranes.

  • Saturated Fats: No double bonds between carbon atoms; solid at room temperature (e.g., butter).

  • Unsaturated Fats: One or more double bonds; liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil).

• Proteins: Made of amino acids; provide structure and function.

  • Structure of Proteins:

    • Primary: Sequence of amino acids.

    • Secondary: Alpha helices or beta sheets.

    • Tertiary: Three-dimensional folding.

    • Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains.

Chapter 3: Cells - The Living Units

Functions of Organelles

• Nucleus: Control center of the cell; contains DNA.

• Nucleolus: Makes ribosomes.

• Mitochondria: Produces ATP (energy).

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Studded with ribosomes; modifies proteins.

• Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies toxins.

• Golgi Apparatus: Packages and ships proteins and lipids.

• Lysosomes: Digest waste and break down molecules.

• Peroxisomes: Detoxify harmful substances.

• Cytoskeleton: Provides structure, helps with movement.

• Cilia: Move substances across the cell surface.

• Flagella: Propel cells (e.g., sperm).

• Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption.

Fluid Mosaic Model

• Describes the cell membrane as a flexible, dynamic structure with proteins embedded in a phospholipid bilayer.

Functions of Membrane Proteins

• Transport: Move substances across the membrane.

• Receptors: Receive signals (e.g., hormones).

• Enzymes: Speed up reactions.

• Cell Recognition: Identify the cell to others.

• Structural Support: Provide stability.

Membrane Transport

• Passive: No energy required.

  • Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

  • Osmosis: Diffusion of water.

  • Facilitated Diffusion: Uses transport proteins.

• Active: Requires ATP.

  • Primary Active Transport: Uses ATP to move substances against a gradient (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

  • Secondary Active Transport: Uses energy from another molecule’s gradient.

  • Endocytosis: Brings substances into the cell.

    • Phagocytosis: Engulfs large particles.

    • Pinocytosis: Engulfs fluids.

    • Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: Uses receptors to bring in specific molecules.

  • Exocytosis: Expels substances from the cell.

CAMs (Cell Adhesion Molecules)

• Help cells stick together and communicate with each other.

Chapter 4: Tissue - The Living Fabric

Epithelial Tissue

• Function: Covers surfaces, protects, absorbs, secretes.

• Types: Simple (one layer) or Stratified (multiple layers).

  • Simple Squamous: Thin for diffusion (lungs).

  • Simple Cuboidal: Secretion and absorption (kidneys).

  • Simple Columnar: Absorption and mucus secretion (intestines).

  • Stratified Squamous: Protection (skin).

Connective Tissue

• Function: Supports, binds, protects.

• Types:

  • Loose: Areolar, Adipose (fat), Reticular.

  • Dense: Regular (tendons), Irregular, Elastic.

  • Cartilage: Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage.

  • Bone: Hard matrix for support.

  • Blood: Fluid matrix for transport.

Nervous Tissue

• Function: Sends electrical impulses.

• Types: Neurons and supporting cells.

Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal: Voluntary, moves bones.

• Cardiac: Involuntary, found in the heart.

• Smooth: Involuntary, found in hollow organs.

Steps of Tissue Repair

1. Inflammation: Blood vessels dilate, clot forms.

2. Organization: Blood clot replaced by granulation tissue.

3. Regeneration: New tissue forms or scar tissue develops.