Motivation and Emotion unit 3

motives

what are motives? 1 pt

internal forces that activate and energize the organism directing it towards a specific goal

what are the types of motives? 2 pts

1. primary/biological/internal motives

2. secondary/social/learned/external motives

characteristics of primary motives? 5 pts

1. familiar to all beings and animals

2. evolved from genetic components

3. are not influenced by cultural or social factors

4. are based on physiological mechanisms

5. are associated with homeostasis and needs

what is a need? 1 pt

a condition within the person that is essential and necessary for life, growth, and well-being

what is the homeostatic mechanism?

starts with our current internal situation that is constantly changing to maintain the homestatic state

A. if the internal conditions are too low:

1. physiological need generates drive

B. if the internal conditions are too low:

1. negative feedback system signals satiety

what are the stages of the need-drive-model behavior by Clark Hull?

1. satiated state

2. physiological deprivation develops gradually

3. prolonged physiological deprivation produces bodily need

4. need intensifies and gives rise to psychological drive

5. goal-directed motivated behaviors occur as an attempt to gratify drive

6. consummatory behavior occurs

7. drive is reduced

back to stage 1

characteristics of secondary motives? 3 pts

1. have no clear biological basis so are therefore learned through experiences and social interaction

2. are typical to our species

3. are acquired through the socialization process and are typically pursued once primary needs have been satisfied

what are the primary motives? 4 pts

1. hunger

2. thirst

3. sex

4. sleep

what are the secondary motives? 4 pts

1. achievement motivation

2. motivation for power

3. motivation for help

4. affiliation and intimacy

5. sex may also be counted as a secondary motive BUT NOT IN HER NOTES

primary motive: hunger- characteristics

1. essential for survival and shared by all sspecies

2. belongs to a complex system incharge of maintaining body weight and preventing energy depletion (hunger/satiety)

3. glucostatic hypothesis accounts for the onset and termination of hunger and eating

4. lipostatic hypothesis accounts for stored fat mass being available and used as a resource

primary motive: hunger- short-term appetitie

1. glucostatic hypothesis states that blood sugar levels are critical to hunger; glucose low, hunger high

2. short-term hunger cues regulate the initiation of meals, their size, and termination

primary motive: hunger- long-term appetitie

1. lipostatic hypothesis states that when fat percentage drops below homeostasis balance, adipose tissues produce ghrelin into the bloodstream to promote weight gain

2. when fat percentage rises above homeostatic level adipose tissues release leptin into the bloodstream to promote weight loss

3. adipose tissue aka fat produces energy like glucose and are monitored by the body

primary motive: hunger- set point theory?

1. linked to physiology, genetics, and molecular biology

2. an active mechanism links our adipose tissue to intake and expenditure via a set point encoded in the brain

3. consistent with biological aspects of balance but fails to explain the environmental and social influences on obesity

4. the body will always revert to a fixed weight

primary motive: hunger- settling points theory?

1. linked to psychology and nutrition

2. replaces the set point model

3. focuses on the environment and human behavior

4. argues that body weight is influences by a variety of factors and settles based on the interaction between biological, environmental, and behavioral influences

5. body stabilises at a weight that reflects personal lifestyle and environment

primary motive: hunger- environmental influences

eating behavior increases when:

1. we are in the presence of others

2. there are large portions

3. there is variety in foods and flavors

4. we see or smell food

what is counter regulation/counterregulatory eating? 1 pt

the paradoxical pattern displayed by dieters who eat very little as part of their diet but starts to eat very much after breaking their diet rule as they believe they have already failed

primary motive: hunger- restrain-release situations

A. dieting and fasting changes eating into a cognitive thing rather than a physiological need leading to stress and problems with food e.g. binge-eating

B. predictors of counterregulatory eating include:

1. sugary/hig calory food

2. when under the influence of drugs

3. when stressed, anxious, or depressed

4. hormal changes e.g. menstruation period

primary motive: hunger- obesity and overweight

1. overweight is anyone over or equal to a BMI of 25 and obese is anyone over or equal to a BMI of 30

2. different options to prevent this are decreased eating in a healthy way, increasing physical activity and practicing mindfulness over environmental influences

primary motive: thirst- characteristics

1. a consciously experienced motivational state that readies the body to perform behaviors necesarry to replenish the water deficit below optimal homeostasis level

2. our bodies are 2/3 water

3. a 2% drop in water makes us thirsty while a 3% drop means we are dehydrated

4. osmometric thirst- high solute concentration in the blood; intracellular fluid lost through sweating, urination, breathing, sneezing etc. and is the main cause of thirst

5. volumetric thirst- fluid loss, low blood or plasma volume; extracellular fluid lost through bleeding or vomiting

6. there is no set amount of water one should drink and it deends on personal lifestyle

how is thirst activated and stopped?

1. the hypothalamus monitors intracellular shrinkage

2. vasopressin is released and goes to the kidneys to conserve water reserves

3. similarly thirst is activated to initate drinking water

4. the mouth and stomach have weak thirst inhibitory mechanisms with quick but temporary signals

5. the cell’s negative feedback mechanism has a strong thirst inhibitory mechanism and is long-term correction

primary motive: thirst- environmental influences

1. taste

2. when water is flavoured drinking behavior cahnges based on the incentive value of the fluid

3. drinking occurs to replenish water levels, sweet taste, or an attraction/addiction to a substance in the drink

4. food intake contributes to 20% of our total water consumption and can impact hydration levels positvely or negatively

primary motive: sex- characteristics

1. can be primary or secondary motive

2. androgens (present in both sexes) contribute to sexual motivation in males while estrogen contributes to sexual stimulation in females

3. androgens also play a role in regulating sexual motivation in females indirectly

primary motive: sex- physical attractiveness

1. a woman’s physical attractiveness is linked to a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7 despite body weight

2. a man’s physical attractiveness is linked to a 0.9 WHR with broad shoulders and masculinity

3. attractiveness varies across cultures and is influenced by facial features. symmetry, and perceived health

what are the 3 categories that explain attractive faces? 3 pts

1. neonatal features- large eyes, small nose, features associated with youth and found attractive in mainly women

2. sexual maturity features in men- broad shoulders, thick facial hair, prominent cheekbones

3. sexual maturity features in women- breasts, waist to hip ratio, childbearing hips

4. expressive features- a wide smile and higher set eyebrows are associated with happiness and openess

primary motive: sex- scripts

1. individual mental representations of the step-by-step sequence of events that occur during a typical sexual episode

2. can evolve from independent, fantasy based scripts to more interpersonal team-oriented scripts

3. failure to coordinate sexual scripts with another can lead to distress, conflict, and anxiety

what are sexual schemas? 1 pt

beliefs about the sexual self derived from past experiences encompassing both positive approach oriented and negative avoidance oriented thoughts and behaviors

male scripts? 3 pts

1. physical approach to sex

2. always ready for sex

3. are tolerated for being sexual

female scripts? 3 pts

1. emotional approach to sex

2. gatekeepers of sex

3. judged for being sexual

primary motive: sleep- characteristics

1. a normal reoccuring state of changed/partial consciousness from which one can be readily aroused

2. neurologically dynamic behavior with elevated arousal threshold and a state of rapid reversibilty

3. during sleep the brain is active and cycles through different stages as multiple neural processes are occuring

4. sleep can be reversed almost instantly unlike other states of unconsciousness

primary motive: sleep- regulation

1. regulated by the two-process model for determination of the state of alertness maintained by circadian and homeostatic processes

2. circadian processes ensure we are awake during the day and asleep during the night

3. homeostatic processes are reflected in the rise of sleepiness and its dissapation during sleep

4. the interaction between these 2 systems determines the state of alertness or sleepiness

primary motive: sleep- functions

1. increased removal of built up waste from our wake moments caused by a higher secretion of CSF during sleep as its passageways increase by 60% during sleep

2. conservation of energy as body temp and muscular activity decrease

3. emotional regulation as there is a connection between our emotional centers and the homeostatic sleep system where connectivity is higher when rested and lower when sleeping deprived

4. memory and learning is facilitated by slow wave sleep which is linked to the reactivation and redistribution of hippocampus dependent memories to the neocortex and random eye movement sleep which further refines and stabilizes these memories

5. associative synaptic plasticity is recalibrated during sleep

secondary motives: achievement motivation- characteristics

1. the need for achievement is the desire to perform well relative to the standard of excellence

2. it motivates individuals to pursue success in competition with this standard

3. according to atikson achivement behavior is based on the individual dispositional need for achievement, probability of success, and the inventive for suceeding

secondary motives: achievement motivation- behaviors

people who score high in achivement motivation exhibit these behaviors:

1. choose moderately difficult tasks

2. demonstrate higher performance levels in tasks requiring high levels of intrinsic motivation

3. perform better in challenging tasks

4. interested in receiving feedback on performance

5. take responsibility for their actions

6. take calculated risks

7. introduce innovation to tasks

8. seek success in their professions

secondary motives: achievement motivation- expectancy-value theory Atkinson’s model

Ts= Ms x Ps x Is

1. ts- tendancy to approach success

2. ms- motive to succeed

3. ps- perceived probability of success from 0-1

4. is- incentive value of success

secondary motives: achievement motivation- tendancy to avoid failure

tendancy to avoid failure motivates people to defend against loss of self-esteem, social respect, and the fear of embarrassment

Taf= Maf x Pf x If

1. Taf- tendancy to avoid failure

2. Pf- probability of failure

3. Maf- motive to avoid failure

4. If- negative incentive value of failure

secondary motives: achievement motivation- combined approach and avoidance tendancies

Ta = Ts - Taf = (Ms x Ps x Is) - (Maf x Pf x If)

1. Ta- tendancy of achievement

2. Ts- tendancy to approach success

3. Taf- tendancy to avoid failure

4. Ms- motivation to succeed

5. Ps- probability of success

6. Is- incentive value of success

7. Maf- motive to avoid failure

8. Pf- probability of failure

9. If- negative incentive value for failure

secondary motives: achievement motivation- conditions that involve the need for achievement

1. moderately difficult tasks- high need achievers outperform low need achievers but the same is not seen with easy or difficult tasks

2. competition- high need achievers are attracted to competition as it allows them to test their competence and receive feedback

3. entrepreneurship- appeals to high need achievers as it requires taking moderate risks and assuming responsibility for one’s success and failures as well as providing feedback on performance

secondary motives: achievement motivation- achievement goals

atkinson states that achievement behavior is a choice we either approach or avoid

A. mastery goals focus on the task and are the core of intrinsic motivation as the person learns for personal gain so is therefore unlikely to experience embarrassment and they:

1. develop one’s competence

2. make progress

3. improve the self

4. overcome difficulties with effort and persistence

B. performance goals focus on the self and are the core of extrinsic motivation as they provide an opportunity for approval, praise and recognition and they:

1. prove one’s competence

2. display high ability

3. outperform others

4. succeed with little apparent effort

C. mastery goals are mainly to approach success and performance goals are mainly to avoid failure

secondary motives: power- characteristics

1. the desire for power comes from the desire to have the ability to generate conformity in others

2. has a distinct physiological pattern that can lead to the chronic activation of the SNS making people more susceptible to heart diseases

secondary motives: power- conditions necessary to satisfy the need for power

1. leadership to establish influence over others

2. aggression primarily expressed as impulses rather than actual acts

3. prestige possessions related to social status

4. influential occupations where they can exert influence and control over other’s behaviors

secondary motives: help

1. cognitive perspective- social judgments about good and evil depending on the cognitive developmental state of the individual making the judgement

2. evolutionary perspective- motivation to help arises as it facilitates genetic transfer and the expectation of a return favor

3. volunteering is an altruistic activity without financial gain that benefits others

4. genuine altruism- selfless considerations influence our willingness to help

5. selfish altruism- we help others obtain a benefit reducing guilt or making us feel better about ourselves

what are the benefits of volunteering? 4 pts

1. psychological satisfaction

2. increased useful personal contacts

3. new and relevant experiences and learning

4. new frienships

secondary motives: help- modulating factors

1. bystander effect- decreases likelihood of of helping

2. social norms

3. attribution of responsibility- decreases likelihood of helping

4. rewards- increases likelihood of helping

5. personality- traits such as empathy increase the likelihood of helping

6. similarity effect- increases likelihood of of helping

7. time pressure- decreases likelihood of helping

8. population density- higher population decreases likelihood of helping

secondary motives: help- theoretical models

1. evolutionary theories

2. model of helping (same as the one in social psych; notice, interpret, take responsibility, decide to help)

3. cost-reward model

secondary motives: affiliation and intimacy- characteristics

1. the need for affiliation is conceptualized as establishing, maintaining, or restoring a positive affective relationship with another/others

2. need for affiliation differs from extroversion, friendliness, or sociability

3. involves building deep and meaningful bonds with others

4. the revised view of the need of affiliation views affiliation as having the need for approval and the need for intimacy

secondary motives: affiliation and intimacy- affiliation vs intimacy

1. affiliation is the general desire to establish, maintain, and restore relationships with others and is characterized by seeking social contact, acceptance, and a sense of belonging often without a strong emphasis on emotional depth

2. intimacy is the motivation fro warm, close, and communicative exchanges with specific individuals and involves a preference for deep meaningful and mutually satisfying interactions often in diadic situations

secondary motives: affiliation and intimacy- conditions create these needs

1. fear and anxiety- when afraid people seek affiliation for emotional support and to observe how others cope with emotions elicited by fear-inducing stimuli

2. establishing interpersonal networks- individuals with a high need for intimacy perceive the strengthening bonds of friendship as fulfilling and emotionally satisfying

secondary motives: affiliation and intimacy- conditions that satisfy these needs

1. maintaining interpersonal networks- once a relationship has been established those with a high need for affiliation and intimacy strive to maintain those relationships and on average report more diadic frienships with depth

2. positive emotions- individuals with a high need for affiliation and intimacy experience emotions such as relief rather than joy when this need is satisfied because they are more focused on avoiding negative emotions rather than the pursuit of joy\

those with a high need for affiliation and intimacy perform well in jobs where they are fostering positive relationships na dmutual support and when being watched they experience high levels of anxiety due to the fear of rejection