Decolonization and Conflict in the Middle East

• refers to a situation where one country or region relies heavily on another for economic support, trade, or resources, often in an unequal relationship

  • this typically happens when a less developed country relies on a more industrialized nation

Economic Dependency

• refers to the indirect control or influence that powerful nations exert over former colonies or less developed countries

  • this concept is especially relevant in the post-colonial era (20th century–present) when many newly independent nations found themselves still dependent on their former colonizers or global powers

Neocolonialism

• refers to the process by which a government takes control of private industries, resources, or assets, often to promote economic independence or state control over key sectors

  • is often associated with socialism, decolonization, and economic reforms in newly independent nations

Nationalization

• was a meeting of 29 Asian and African nations in Bandung, Indonesia

  • many participating nations sought to remain independent from Cold War superpower influence (the U.S. and Soviet Union) - promoted Non-Alignment

Bandung Conference

• was a violent anti-colonial struggle between Algeria and France

  • was part of a larger wave of decolonization after WWII

  • led by the National Liberation Front (FLN)

Algerian War for Independence

• was a conflict between Nigeria and the secessionist state of Biafra

  • Cause: Ethnic tensions, political instability, and economic struggles led the Igbo-dominated southeastern region to declare independence as the Republic of this secessionist state in 1967

  • Outcome: This secessionist state surrendered in 1970, and Nigeria was reunified under military rule

Biafran Civil War

• is a continental organization established in 2001 to promote unity, economic development, and political stability among African nations

  • maintained peace and security through interventions in conflicts

  • promoted economic integration and development

African Union

• was the Algerian nationalist movement that led the fight for independence from France (1954–1962) during the Algerian War for Independence

  • After the Evian Accords, Algeria became independent, and this movement became the ruling political party

FLN (National Liberation Front)

• country in East Africa that is a key example of decolonization, nationalism, and post-colonial challenges

  • was dominated by Britain

  • Independence in 1963: led by Jomo Kenyatta and this country became independent

Kenya

• country in West Africa

  • was key in the Biafran Civil War

  • is Africa’s most populous country and major economic power

Nigeria

• was the division of British India into two independent nations: India and Pakistan

  • Causes:

    • Rising Hindu-Muslim tensions during British rule

  • Consequences:

    • Kashmir Conflict - India and Pakistan fought over the Muslim-majority region of Kashmir, leading to multiple wars

Partition of India

• are an ethnic group in southeastern Nigeria known for their role in colonial resistance, the Biafran Civil War, and post-colonial struggles

  • had a decentralized political system with small, autonomous villages

Igbos

• was a leader of African decolonization and the first prime minister and president of Ghana after independence from Britain in 1957

  • became a symbol of anti-colonial nationalism in Africa

Kwame Nkrumah

• was a French military leader and statesman who played a key role in World War II, decolonization, and the Cold War

  • led the French resistance against Nazi Germany after the fall of France in 1940

Charles De Gaulle

• was a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the Secretary-General of the United Nations (1997–2006) and was a key figure in global peacekeeping and international diplomacy

  • criticized the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, calling it illegal under international law

Kofi Annan

• was a Kenyan nationalist leader and the first prime minister (1963) and president (1964–1978) of independent Kenya

  • Post-Colonial Rule:

    • Promoted economic modernization and a policy of "Africanization"

    • Ruled as an authoritarian leader, suppressing political opposition

Jomo Kenyatta

• was a political organization in British India that played a key role in the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan in 1947

  • was founded in 1906

  • formed to protect the interests of Muslims in British India, fearing Hindu-majority dominance in the Indian National Congress

Muslim League

• was the western part of Pakistan after the Partition of India (1947)

  • is called the modern day Pakistan

West Pakistan

• was the eastern part of Pakistan after the Partition of India (1947)

  • became known as Bangladesh

East Pakistan

• is significant for its struggle for independence from Pakistan (1971), post-colonial nationalism, and economic development

  • was originally East Pakistan

  • was geographically separated from West Pakistan

Bangladesh

• is a territorial dispute between India and Pakistan that began after the Partition of India (1947) and has led to multiple wars and ongoing conflict

  • India and Pakistan both claimed the region

Kashmir

• was the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan (1988–1990, 1993–1996) and the first woman to lead a Muslim-majority country

  • First Term: focused on modernization, women’s rights, and economic reform but was removed due to corruption allegations

Benazir Bhutto

• was a South African anti-apartheid leader, political prisoner, and the first Black president of South Africa (1994–1999)

  • Leader of the African National Congress (ANC): Fought against apartheid, the system of racial segregation imposed by the white-minority government

  • President of South Africa (1994–1999): Focused on racial reconciliation, democracy, and human rights

Nelson Mandela

• was a system of racial segregation and institutionalized discrimination enforced by the white-minority government in South Africa (1948–1994)

  • is significant as an example of racial injustice, resistance movements, and post-colonial struggles

Apartheid

• were identification documents used to restrict the movement of Black South Africans under the apartheid system (1948–1994) in South Africa

  • Required all nonwhite South Africans to carry this when traveling outside designated homelands (Bantustans)

Passbooks

• is a language spoken primarily in South Africa and Namibia, developed from Dutch settlers (Boers) in the 17th century

  • became closely tied to apartheid and white minority rule in South Africa

Afrikaans

• were territories set aside for Black South Africans under the apartheid system (1948–1994) in South Africa

  • the white controlled government designated 10 of these based on ethnic groups

    • A more general term that refers to the same regions, but it was sometimes used in a way to legitimize the policy, implying that these areas were the true "homes" of Black South Africans

Homelands

• were territories created by the apartheid government in South Africa to segregate Black South Africans

  • the white controlled government assigned 10 of these to Black ethnic groups forcing them to live in poor, underdeveloped regions

  • the term used by the apartheid government to describe the separate territories assigned to different Black ethnic groups

Bantustans

• was a key document in South Africa’s anti-apartheid movement, outlining a vision for a non-racial, democratic society

  • created by the African Nation Congress (ANC)

Freedom Charter

• a major anti-apartheid protest in South Africa, where thousands of Black students demonstrated against the forced use of Afrikaans in schools

  • an uprising in South Africa

Soweto

• was the last white president of apartheid South Africa (1989–1994) and played a key role in ending apartheid

  • Worked with Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress (ANC) to transition South Africa into a multiracial democracy

F.W. de Klerk

• refers to the process of withdrawing investments from companies, industries, or countries, often as a form of economic protest

  • can refer to the withdrawal of colonial holdings

Divest

• is a political party and anti-apartheid movement in South Africa, founded in 1912 to fight for the rights of Black South Africans

  • initially focused on peaceful protests against racial discrimination

African National Congress

• was a South African anti-apartheid activist and leader of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM)

  • which promoted Black pride, self-reliance, and resistance against white minority rule

Stephen Biko

• were a system of racial segregation laws enforced in the Southern United States (late 19th century–1965) that institutionalized racism and discrimination against African Americans

  • are significant as a continuation of racial oppression after slavery and a major cause of the U.S. Civil Rights Movement

Jim Crow Laws

• was a political organization founded in 1885 that led the movement for India’s independence from British rule and later became a major political party in independent India

  • Became India’s dominant political party, shaping its democracy and economy

Indian National Congress

• is a political and cultural movement that advocates for the unity, solidarity, and liberation of African nations and people of African descent worldwide

  • is significant for fostering African nationalism, independence movements, and global Black solidarity

Pan-Africanism

• refers to the British colony in West Africa that later became the independent nation of Ghana in 1957

  • named this because of it’s rich gold resources

Gold Coast

• is a nonviolent form of political protest where individuals refuse to follow unjust laws as a way to bring about change

  • the act of purposely breaking a law, without resorting to violence, as a form of protest against a government policy or law that is considered unjust, with the aim of bringing about social or political change

Civil disobedience

• was a major act of civil disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi against British colonial rule in India

  • a turning point in India’s independence struggle

  • was a nonviolent protest led by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930 against the British salt tax in India

Salt March

• is a country in South Asia that was created in 1947 as a result of the Partition of India, based on religious divisions between Hindus and Muslims

  • British India was divided into India (Hindu-majority) and this one (Muslim-majority)

Pakistan

• was a violent crackdown by British troops on peaceful Indian protesters, which became a turning point in the Indian independence movement

  • was a turning point for India

  • Event:

    • Thousands of unarmed Indians gathered for a peaceful protest and religious festival

    • Brigadier General Reginald Dyer ordered British troops to fire on the crowd without warning

    • Around 400–1,000 killed, over 1,500 wounded (exact numbers disputed)

Amritsar Massacre

• was a nonviolent resistance movement led by Mohandas Gandhi in British India

  • was based on the non civil disobedience against British rule

  • Nonviolence (Ahimsa) – Gandhi encouraged peaceful protests, boycotts, and strikes instead of violent rebellion

  • Civil Disobedience – Refusal to obey unjust British laws, such as the Rowlatt Act and salt taxes

  • Mass Participation – Included people from all social classes, including peasants, workers, and women

  • Major Events

    • Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) – Called for Indians to boycott British goods, institutions, and services

    • Salt March (1930) – Protest against the British salt monopoly, a key moment in the Indian independence movement

Satyagraha movement

• was a mass protest against British rule in India, led by Mohandas Gandhi and the Indian National Congress (INC) during World War II

  • the movement demanded an immediate end to British rule, with the slogan "Do or Die."

  • encouraged strikes, mass protests, and mass civil disobedience

Quit India Movement

• was a key political leader in British India and the founder of Pakistan

  • became the leader of the Muslim League

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

• was a leader of India's independence movement against British rule

  • he is best known for his philosophy of nonviolent resistance (Satyagraha) and his role in decolonization movements worldwide

Mohandas Gandhi

• was a key leader in India's independence movement and India’s first Prime Minister (1947–1964)

  • leader of the Indian National Congress and close ally of Mohandas Gandhi

Jawaharlal Nehru

• refers to the government-led repression and mass killing of peasants and indigenous people in El Salvador in 1932

  • this event was a response to the failed communist led uprising against the ruling elite

  • is also considered one of the worst massacres in Latin American history

La Matanza

• is a political ideology that emphasizes the idea of "the people" versus "the elite."

  • these leaders claim to represent the common people and often use nationalism, mass mobilization, and strong leadership to push their agenda

  • was the closest Latin American got to communism

Populism

• was a foreign policy initiative by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in the 1930s aimed at improving relations with Latin America by rejecting military intervention and promoting diplomacy

  • improved US-Latin American relations, reducing tensions caused by imperialism

Good Neighbor Policy

• refer to government reforms aimed at addressing social, political, and economic injustices caused by industrialization, corruption, and inequality

  • Impact & Legacy

    ✅ Helped the working class and poor by improving wages, health, and rights.
    ❌ Faced resistance from business elites and political conservatives.
    🔄 Inspired later social movements, like the New Deal (1930s) and civil rights movements.

  • challenged laissez-faire capitalism with regulations and social programs

Progressive Policy

• was a Marxist politician and the first democratically elected socialist president of Chile (1970–1973)

  • his presidency was marked by land reforms, nationalization of industries, Cold War tensions, and his overthrow in a U.S.-backed military coup

Salvador Allende

• was a secret agreement between Britain and France during World War I that divided the Middle East into spheres of influence after the expected fall of the Ottoman Empire

  • the agreement contributed to tensions in the Middle East that persist today

Sykes-Picot Agreement

• is a political and military organization founded in 1964 to represent Palestinian interests and achieve statehood

  • gained international recognition for Palestinian nationalism

Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)

• is a regional organization of Arab nations, founded in 1945 to promote political, economic, and military cooperation among Arab states and support the independence and sovereignty of Arab countries

  • encouraged Arab nationalism and unity efforts

Arab League

• was a Cold War-era conflict in which Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, leading to a military intervention by Britain, France, and Israel

  • became a turning point in decolonization, highlighting the decline of European imperial power and the rising influence of the U.S. and Soviet Union in global affairs

Suez Crisis

• is a nationalist movement that emerged in the late 19th century, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine (modern-day Israel)

  • was a response to European anti-Semitism and the desire for Jewish self-determination

Zionism

• was a series of pro-democracy uprisings across the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) that began in 2010

  • led to the overthrow of several authoritarian governments but also sparked civil wars and instability in some countries

Arab Spring

• were Palestinian uprisings against Israeli control in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, aiming to resist Israeli occupation and push for Palestinian statehood

  • increased global attention to the Palestinian cause

Intifada

• was a British-owned oil company that controlled Iran’s oil industry from the early 20th century until its nationalization in 1951

  • inspired oil nationalization movements worldwide

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company

• was a major political and social uprising that led to the overthrow of the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the establishment of an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

  • was a reaction against Western influence, political repression, and economic struggles under the Shah’s rule

Iranian Revolution

• was a Shi’a Muslim cleric and the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which overthrew the Shah of Iran and established an Islamic Republic

  • became Iran’s supreme leader and implemented a theocratic government based on Islamic law

Ayatollah Khomeini

• is a term used by Ayatollah Khomeini and other Iranian leaders to refer to the United States after the 1979 Iranian Revolution

  • symbolizes Iran's view of the U.S. as an imperialist, corrupt, and anti-Islamic power

“The Great Satan”

• is the separation of religion from government and public affairs

  • Promotes religious tolerance and equal rights

  • Encourages scientific and legal progress without religious interference

Secularism

• is a Jewish state in the Middle East, established in 1948 after World War II and the Holocaust

  • its creation led to ongoing conflicts with Palestinians and Arab nations, shaping modern Middle Eastern history

Israel

• refers to the historical region in the Middle East that has been the center of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict

  • was home to Arab Palestinians and Jewish communities before the creation of Israel in 1948, which led to ongoing disputes over land, statehood, and self-determination

Palestine

• was a short but decisive conflict between Israel and the Arab nations of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria

  • shifted power balance in the Middle East

6 Day War

• was a conflict between Israel and a coalition of Arab nations, led by Egypt and Syria

  • began with a surprise Arab attack on Israel on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur and during Ramadan, aiming to reclaim lost territory from the Six-Day War (1967)

Yom Kippur War

• was the President of Egypt (1956–1970) and a key figure in Arab nationalism, anti-imperialism, and the Cold War

  • he led Egypt’s revolution against British influence, promoted Pan-Arabism, and played a major role in conflicts with Israel

  • was also a key figure in the Suez Crisis

Gamal Abdel Nasser

• was a statement by the British government on November 2, 1917, expressing support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine

  • was a key event in the Zionist movement and played a major role in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict

Balfour Declaration

• was a political and cultural movement advocating for the unification of all Arab nations based on a shared language, culture, and history

  • emerged in response to European imperialism, Zionism, and Western influence, peaking in the mid-20th century

Pan-Arab Nationalism

• was a Cold War-era strategy where countries, mainly from the Global South, refused to formally align with either the United States (capitalist bloc) or the Soviet Union (communist bloc)

  • instead, they pursued independent foreign policies, advocating for peace, economic development, and decolonization

Non-Alignment Policy

• was the Prime Minister of Iran (1951–1953) and a leader of Iranian nationalism

  • he is best known for nationalizing Iran’s oil industry, which had been controlled by the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC)

Mohammad Mossadegh

• was the founder of the Pahlavi Dynasty and the Shah of Iran (1925–1941)

  • was a military officer who took power in a coup (1921) and later became Shah, launching major modernization and secularization efforts in Iran

  • he was forced to abdicate in 1941 when Britain and the Soviet Union occupied Iran during World War II

Shah Rez Khan

• was the last Shah (king) of Iran (1941–1979) and a key Cold War leader

  • his rule was marked by Western-backed modernization, authoritarian policies, and growing opposition, which led to the Iranian Revolution (1979) and his overthrow

Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

• refer to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaeda, an Islamic extremist group, against the United States

  • the attacks led to the U.S. War on Terror, the invasion of Afghanistan (2001), and later, the Iraq War (2003), reshaping global politics and security policies

9/11

• is a militant Islamist terrorist organization founded by Osama bin Laden in 1988

  • it emerged during the Soviet-Afghan War (1979–1989) and became known for carrying out the 9/11 attacks (2001)

Al-Qaeda

• was the founder and leader of al-Qaeda, the terrorist organization responsible for the 9/11 attacks (2001)

  • he was a Saudi Arabian militant who used Islamic extremism to justify global jihad (holy war) against the U.S. and its allies

Osama bin Laden

• is an Islamist militant group that emerged in Afghanistan in the 1990s

  • they ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001 and re-established control in 2021 after the U.S. withdrawal

  • enforced a strict interpretation of Islamic law (Sharia) and has been involved in global terrorism, human rights violations, and conflicts with Western powers

Taliban

• was the 43rd President of the United States (2001–2009)

  • his presidency was defined by the 9/11 attacks (2001), the War on Terror, and the U.S. invasions of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003)

George W. Bush

• is a political ideology that seeks to implement Islamic principles in government and society

  • advocates for the application of Sharia (Islamic law) in politics, law, and daily life. Islamism can take different forms, ranging from moderate movements to militant extremist groups like al-Qaeda and ISIS

Islamism

• was the President of Iraq from 1979 to 2003 and a brutal dictator known for his authoritarian rule, wars with neighboring countries, and human rights abuses

  • his regime collapsed after the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, and he was later captured, tried, and executed

Saddam Hussein

• refers to a conflict between Iraq and a U.S.-led coalition of nations

  • the war ended with an Iraqi defeat, but it had long-term consequences, including continued tensions in the Middle East and the later U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003

The Gulf War

• refers to the U.S.-led military campaign launched in response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks, beginning on October 7, 2001

  • it primarily targeted Afghanistan, where the Taliban regime was harboring Osama bin Laden and his terrorist group, al-Qaeda

  • the operation aimed to overthrow the Taliban government, destroy al-Qaeda networks, and prevent future terrorist attacks

Operation Enduring Freedom

• is a terrorist organization that emerged from the remnants of al-Qaeda in Iraq after the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq

  • gained global attention in 2014 when it seized large territories in Iraq and Syria, declaring a so-called caliphate under its leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi

ISIS

• refers to a U.S. law passed in response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks in 2001

  • it expanded government surveillance powers to combat terrorism

The Patriot Act

• is a U.S. federal agency created in 2002 in response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks

  • its primary mission is to prevent terrorism, enhance national security, and coordinate emergency response efforts

The Department of Homeland Security