Language Diversity - Language and Gender

Paper 2

Stereotype

Assigning a general set of characteristics to a group as a whole

Representation

The portrayal of events, people and circumstances through language and other meaning-making resources (e.g. images) to create a way of seeing the world.

Ideology

A particular set of ideas and beliefs

Hegemony

The process by which we internalise the norms and values of the dominant social order - these value appear ‘natural’ and complete, rather than constructed.

Gender representation

Refers to how men and women are constructed and portrayed in, for example, books, advertisements, scripts and the media.

It is about the image an audience is given of men and women.

Sex

Refers to the biological differences between males and females

Gender

Refers to the behavioural characteristics that are a result of social and cultural influences and expectations.

It is not unalterable and predetermined - it is socially constructed

Heteronormativity

Belief that people fall into distinct and complementary roles in life.

Asserts that heterosexuality is the ‘norm’ and states that sexual/marriage relations are most or only between people of opposite sexes.

Sexual orientation

Who you are attracted to

Sexual behaviour

What happens when other people get involved

Gender roles

Built by societies, not individuals

Romantic orientation

People you want to have strong intimate relationships with, but separates out the idea that sex has to be the goal or end point of every intimate relationship

Socialisation

Gender socialisation is the process of learning the social expectations and attitudes associated with one’s sex.

Links to Behaviourism and ‘Operant conditioning’

Gender identity age

It is thought that for most, gender identity, feeling a sense of being ‘male’ or ‘female’ or a gender that is both or neither is established by the age of 4.

‘Gender neutral child’ case study

Child brought up as ‘gender neutral’ - active attempt to avoid stereotyping

2012

Arguments for bringing up a ‘gender neutral’ child

Has given the opportunity for exploring both genders

Arguments against bringing up a ‘gender neutral’ child

Potentially making the child a target for bullying for being different

Wasn’t the child’s choice - was forced into this

Might make the child feel more confused to who they actually are

Dale Spender

Wrote book Man Made Language in 1980

Spender introduced the idea that the English Language is a sexist language as has been constructed by men, for men.

She suggested that the language is androcentric

Androcentric

Centred around the male

Generic

General use or general reference e.g. use of masculine pronouns to signify both males and females

Marking

Identifying an item as different from the norm

Gender marking can involve adding a word or suffix to ‘mark’ gender e.g. actress or female doctor

Tautology

Producing redundancy in meaning by saying the same thing twice, e.g. advance warning

For gender, consider why we don’t use phrases such as ‘family women’ or ‘working dad’ - it’s seen as a tautology.

Arguments in support of the pronoun ‘they’ to function as a single gender-neutral pronoun

It’s not new, it has been used in past literature

We don’t use proper grammar in speech

It’s using an existing pronoun in a slightly different way

Language changes to reflect societal change

Arguments against the pronoun ‘they’ to function as a single gender-neutral pronoun

Pre-existing pronoun with pre-existing meaning so confusing

English operates with binary gender and always has, so why should this change?

What do the phrases working mother, single mother and unmarried mother suggest about what society expects as the norm for mothers and women?

It isn’t the norm or what is expected of women to be the things named above so when they are called this, they are being called out for it like it’s a bad thing.

What do the phrases house husband, male nurse and family man suggest about what society expects as the norm for husbands and men?

It isn’t the norm for men to be at home with the family as it is excepted that he should be out working to provide for the family.

Also, the jobs nurse and model are more associated with a female doing those jobs so society thinks it’s wrong if a man does it instead.

Analysis of data about roles in society from Baker 2014

The roles more associated with men are more preceded by women (meaning gender marking for those roles occurs more when women take those roles) and vice versa.

Analysis of data about jobs in society from Baker 2014

The highest of the females is almost half the lowest of the male one

The -man suffix on jobs in society is much more commonly used

Vocative

Term used to address someone

This could be a name or Sir/Madam/Miss

Title

Something that precedes a name - Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms/Dr

Endearment

A ‘positive’/familiar term used to address someone e.g. dear, love, sweetie

Male titles are distinguished by…

age

Female titles are distinguished by…

marital status

What are the associations of the title Ms?

Does not indicate marital status or doesn’t intend to

Is more associated with a woman being divorced now

Infantilising

Treat someone as a child or in a way which denies their maturity in age or experience.

Some terms used towards women are also used towards children e.g. sweetheart

What terns of endearment can be used towards women to be condescending?

Poppet and sweetheart

Positive male sexual slang terms

Playboy

Player

Stud

Flirt

Negative male sexual slang terms

Boy toy

Manwhore

Player

Easy

Virgin

Fuckboy

Positive female sexual slang terms

Flirtatious

Negative female sexual slang terms

Tart

Slut

Slag

Whore

Easy

Skank

Tease

Bop

Bitch

Frigid

Hoe

Hussy

Sket

Findings of Julia Stanley in 1973

Found that there was a marked inequality in the number of words for sexually promiscuous women (200) compared with those used to describe males (20)

Semantic derogation

Derogatory meaning is more readily attached to the female version of otherwise synonymous words

What did Muriel Schultz find?

Found that terms marked for females tend to take on a pejorative (contempt) meaning, where the male term suggests a positive attribute

Ordering of the sexes

The male tends to precede the female in a pair e.g. boys and girls, husband and wife

Well-known exceptions to the male preceding the female in a pair

Ladies and gentlemen, bride and groom

What areas of public discourse are less likely to have sexist language present?

Academic settings

What areas of public discourse are more likely to have sexist language present?

Social media

Rap/hip hop lyrics

Football games

Reappropriation

Reclaiming words that have negative associations and seeking to change them to something more positive

Deborah Cameron idea of ‘reclaiming the negative’

The negative word ‘reclaimed’ to turn it into a positive meaning.

Some people can try to reclaim the word and change its meaning, however, other people can still view it and use it for its original meaning.

Political correctness

The expression political correctness came about in the 1970s and was intended to mean ‘inclusive’

Political correct language might include…

Encouraging use that does not cause an individual of any demographic group to feel excluded or offended

Avoiding vocatives that are excluding of one gender such as ‘fireman’

Avoiding expressions that are derogatory with regard to physical or mental abilities, such as handicapped.

Political correct terms for bin man, girlfriend, illegal immigrant and unintelligent

Bine person, partner, asylum seeker, challenged

Deborah Cameron - sexism in English

1970s - view biased against women is built into the grammar of the English language, for example words like he used as the generic pronoun.

Many feel that this is not inclusive and that we should abandon he as the generic pronoun and instead use they or he/she.

Word order is also key - the frequency of how often they are used and what words they are used alongside which demonstrate sexism in the English language.

Who presented the idea of ‘verbal hygiene’?

Deborah Cameron

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Language determines how we see the world

Arguments that the PC movement is right to try to ban offensive language like this

Language could offend people

Linguistic relativity

Arguments that this campaign is an attempt to censor free speech and control what is and is not acceptable to say and therefore think

Hard to regulate language

Language always changes

People are too sensitive about these things

Genderlect

Spoken language style characteristics of a particular gender

Generalisations/myths about men’s language use

More direct

Generally use more expletives when angry

More aggressive

Use less words

Less polite

Use more slang

More confident

Generalisations/myths about women’s language use

Use intensifiers more

More polite

More talkative

Apologise more

Superlative adjectives

Hedging

Emotive

Passive aggressive

Use more expletives casually

Compliment more

Backchanelling

Use gestures when talking more

Folklinguistics

Ideas about language that circulate in society without serious linguistic evidence to support this