Families and households

What is the domestic division of labor

Roles of husband and wives are segregated

What is parsons' view of roles in the family

Husbands have an instrumental role and women have an emotional role

What is the instrumental role in a family

Geared towards achieving success at work so he can provide for the family financially m. He is the breadwinner

What is the expressive role

Geared towards primary socialization of the children and meeting the family's emotional needs. She is the homemaker and a full time housewife

What is parsons' view on the domestic division of labor

It is based on biological differences, with women 'naturally' suited to the nurturing role and men to that of the provider. He claims that this division of labour is beneficial to men and women, their children and society.

Describe other sociologists criticism of parsons' view on the division of labour.

Young and wilmott (1962) argue that men are taking bigger roles in domestic tasks and more wives are becoming wage earners

Female sociologists reject the view that the divison of labour happens naturally and argues that it doesn't benefit women

What did Elizabeth bott (1957) distinguish on conjugal roles in families

2 types of roles within a marriage.

Joint conjugal roles and segregated conjugal roles

What are segregated conjugal roles

where the couple have separate roles: a male breadwinner and a female homemaker/carer, as in Parsons' instrumental and expressive roles. Their leisure activities also tend to be separate.

What are joint conjugal roles

Where the couple share tasks such as housework and childcare and spend their leisure time together.

What did young and wilmott discover in their study of traditional working class families in Berthnal green (1950)

Identified a pattern of segregated conjugal roles. Men were the breadwinners. They played little part in home life and spent leisure time with workmates. Women were full time house wives with sole responsibility for housework and childcare. The limited free time was spent with female kin.

What is the march of progress view and who supports it

Young and wilmott(1973) take a march of progress view. They see family life as gradually improving for all its members, becoming more equal and democratic. They argue that there has been a long term trend away from segregated conjugal roles and towards joint conjugal roles and the symmetrical family.

What is a symmetrical family

Authority and household tasks shared between male and female partners.

Women now go to work although this may be part time instead of full time.

Men help with housework

Couples spend leisure time together

Why do young and wilmott see a rise in symmetrical families

Changes in a women's position- married women go to work

Geographical mobility- more couples live away from the community they grew up in

New technology and labour saving devices

Higher standards of living so both partners need to work to survive

Why do feminist sociologists reject the march of progress view

They argue that little had changed and that men and women remain unequal in the house with women doing the majority of the housework.

They see this inequality as stemming from the male dominated and patriarchal society. They believe that women occupy a subordinate and dependent role in the family and society

Describe Ann Oakley(1974) view on symmetrical families

She criticises Young and wilmott's view on symmetrical families. She argues that the claims are exaggerated. Although Young and Wilmott found that husbands "helped" their wives at least once a week it would include taking the children for a walk. For Oakley this is hardly convincing evidence of symmetry.

What did Oakley find in their research on symmetrical families

Some evidence of husbands helping in the home but not evidence towards symmetry. Only 15% of husbands had a high level of participation in housework and only 25% had a high level of participation in childcare

Husbands were more likely to share in childcare than housework. This often consisted of pleasurable talks like playing with the children in the evenings. But this could mean the mother loses the reward of childcare and is left with the housework

What research did Boulton(1983) conduct that backed up oakley's research

Boulton found that fewer than 20% of husbands had a major role in childcare . She argues that young and wilmott exaggerate men's contribution by looking at the tasks in childcare not responsibility. A father may help with some tasks but it was the mother who was responsible for the child's wellbeing.

What research did Warde and Hetherington (1993) conduct involving domestic roles

Sex typing of domestic tasks remain strong. Eg women were 30 times more likely to be the last to wash up but men were 4 times more likey to be the last to wash the car.

They also found that men would only carry out "female" tasks when their partner was not around.

Describe the march of progress view of families (name sociologists)

They argue that women going out to work is leading to a more equal division of labour at home and men are becoming more involved in housework. In this view men are becoming more involved in housework and childcare just as women are becoming more involved in paid work.

what does southerton note about taking responsiblity for quality time

arranging quality time for the family often falls on the mothers shoulders and has become more difficult in modern society due to factors like flexible working hours.

she also notes that whilst men and women have more or less equal amounts of leisure time they have different experiences.

what does boulton point out in terms of the feminist view on the division of labour and which other sociologists support this view

although fathers may help by performing specific childcare tasks, it is usually the mother who takes responsibility for the child's security.

ferri and smith- mfathers took responsibility for childcare in fewer than 4% of families.

Dex and ward- although fathers had quite high levels of involvement with their children. only 1% of fathers took main responsibility when it came to a sick child.

describe emotional work and the triple shift

feminists have notes that women are often required to perform emotional work- managing the feelings of the family whilst simultaneously handling their own emotions.

Duncombe and Marsden argue that women perform a triple shift of houseowrk, paidwork, and emotion work.

what are the 2 explanations for the unequal division of labour by crompton and lyonette

cultural/ideological- DoL is determined by patriachal norms and values that shape the gender roles in our culture. women perform more domestic tasks simply as it is what society expects them to do.

material/economic-women generally earn less than men so it is economically rational for women to do more of the housework and childcare while men spend more of their time earning money.

evidence for the cultural explanation of the DoL

from this perspective equality will be achieved only when norms about gender roles change.

gershuny- found that couples whose parents had a more equal relationship are more likely to share housework themsleves.- shows importance of parental role models.

Dunne- found that lesbian couples had a more symmetrical relationships due to the absence of traditional heterosexual "gender scripts"

evidence for the material explanation of the DoL

from this perspective if women join the labour force and earn as much as their partners we would expect to see men and women doing more equal amounts of domestic work.

kan- for every £10000 a year more a woman earns she does 2 hours less housework a week.

Sullivan- working full time rather than part time makes the biggest difference in terms of how much domestic work each partner does.- working full time brings women's earnings much closer to those of their partners.

This section explores gender inequalities in earnings, labor division, and household decision-making. Research by Sullivan suggests that full-time work helps close the earnings gap between men and women, but on average, women still earn less, partly because more women work part-time, especially those with young children. Rosemary Crompton argues that without economic equality, a truly equal division of labor is unlikely

describe income in the household and how it is shared and spent.

Resource Inequality (Barrett & McIntosh, 1991): Men benefit more from women's domestic labor than they reciprocate financially. Financial support from husbands is often inconsistent and conditional, with men typically controlling significant spending decisions.

Poverty and Sacrifice: Research, such as Kempson (1994), highlights that women in low-income families often sacrifice personal needs, even skipping meals, to prioritize their families' needs.

what are the 2 types of control over the family income are their - identified by Pahl and Vogler

allowance systems- men give their wives an allowance out of which they have to budget to meet the family's needs, with the man retaining any surplus income for himself.

pooling- where both partners have access to income and joint responsibility for expenditure.

describe decision making in the family - Hardills, finch

where the pooled income is controlled by the husband, this tends to give men more power in major financial. decisions (although not as much as in an allowance system, Pahl and Vogler (2007) found that even where there was pooling, the men usually made the major financial decisions.

Similarly, Irene Hardill's (1997) study of 30 dual-career professional couples found that the important decisions were usually taken either by the man alone or jointly and that his career normally took priority when deciding whether to move house for a new job. This supports Janet Finch's (1983) observation that women's lives tend to be structured around their husbands' careers.

who makes the very important,important and less important decisions in the family according to edgell

very- such as those involving finance, change of job etc were husband alone or taken jointly but with the husband having the final say.

important-such as those about children's education or holidays were usually taken jointly and seldom by the wife alone.

less- such as those of the choice of home decor were usually made by the wife

Edgell argues that the reason men are likely to take the decisions is that they earn more, women usually earn less than their husbands and being dependant on them, economically have less say in decision making.

evidence of a slight move towards greater equality in financial decision making.

there is some evidence of a limited move towards greater equality in financial decision-making. Laurie and Gershuny (2000) found that by 1995, 70% of couples said they had an equal say in decisions. Significantly, though, they found that women who were high earning, well qualified professionals were more likely to have an equal say.

what do feminists argue on the inequalities of decision making

they arent simply the result of inequalities in earnings but due to the patriarchal society. the cultural defifntion of men as the decision makers have been deeply ingrained in society and instilled through gender role socialisation. until this definition is challenged, decision making is likely to remain unequal

describe a personal life perspective on money

The "personal life" perspective on money looks at the specific meanings couples attach to financial control. It suggests that control over money doesn't always indicate inequality; instead, its meaning depends on the relationship. For instance, Smart (2007) found that many same-sex couples, particularly gay men and lesbians, place little importance on who controls the money and don't see it as a sign of either equality or inequality.

Similarly, Weeks et al. (2001) observed a "co-independence" approach, where couples especially in same sex relationships pool some money for household expenses but keep separate personal accounts, preserving both sharing and independence. Smart argues that same-sex couples have more freedom to choose financial arrangements because they avoid "historical, gendered, heterosexual baggage" that links money to power. Thus, supporters of this perspective emphasize starting from each couple's personal meanings to understand financial dynamics.

Define domestic violence

Any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender or sexuality.

what do sociologists argue that dv is a result of

Sociologists argue that domestic violence is not simply the result of disturbed individuals but is widespread and follows social patterns, mainly impacting women. According to the Women's Aid Federation (2014) and the Crime Survey for England and Wales (2013), domestic violence accounts for a a sixth and a quarter of violent crime, affecting millions. Studies, including those by Coleman et al. she found that women were more likely than men to experience intimate abuse across all 4 types of abuse- partner, family abuse , sexual assault and stalking.

(2007) and Dobash & Dobash (1979), highlight that violence often stems from a perceived challenge to male authority and that marriage can reinforce male dominance.

CRIME survey for england and wales reveal a gender gap: 7.3% of women and 5% of men reported abuse, though other studies indicate a larger gap.

Research by Walby & Allen (2004) and Ansara & Hindin (2011) found that women experience more severe violence and fear from partners, often with lasting psychological effects.

why do official stats of dv understate the extent of the problem

victims may be unwilling to report it to the police. Yearnshire found that on average a women suffers 35 assaults before making a report.

police and prosecutors may be reluctant to record or investigate the cases as they are not prepared to become involved in fzmily life.

what are the 3 assumptions of family life given by police and prosecutors

family is a private sphere so access to it by state should be limited.

family is a good thing so agencies neglect the "darker side of family"

individuals are free agent so if a woman was abused she is free to leave. but women are often dependant on their husbands financially- male violence is often couples with male economic power.

what are the 2 types of explanations for dv

radical feminist- emphasises the role of patriarchal ideas, cultural values and institutions.

materialist explanations-emphasises economic factors such as a lack of resources.

describe the radical feminist explanation of dv

radical feminists interpret findings such as those of Dobash and Dobash as evidence of the patriachy. Millett and firestone argue that all societies have been founded on patriarchy. They see the key division in society as that between men and women. Men are the enemy: they are the oppressors and exploiters of women.

They see the family and marriage as the key institutions in patriarchal society and the main source of women's oppression. Within the family, men dominate women through domestic violence or the threat of it.

widespread domestic violence is an inevitable feature of patriarchal society and serves to preserve the power that all men have over all women.

In their view, this helps to explain why most domestic violence is committed by men.

Furthermore, in their view, male domination of state institutions helps to explain the reluctance of the police and courts to deal effectively with cases of domestic violence.

criticism of radical feminist explanation of dv

Elliot rejects this view. she claims that not all men benefit from violence against women. radical feminists ignore that not all men are aggressive and most are opposed to dv.

they also fail to explain female violence eg child abuse by women and violence against male partners and within lesbian relationships. eg the crime survey for england and wales found that 18% of men have experienced dv since the age of 16.

radical feminists also use the concept of the patriachy to suggest why most victims of dv are women but fail to explain that not all women are equally at risk.

women at greater risk ( office of national stats)

young women, low income women and those with long term illness or disability.

describe the materialist explanation for dv

focuses on economic and material factors such as inequalities in income and housing to explain why some groups are more at risk.

wilkinson and pickett see dv as the result of stress on family caused by social inequality.

inequality means some families have less resources than others. those on low incomes and overcrowded housing are likely to experience high stress. this reduces the chance of maintaining a stable, caring relationships and increases risk of conflict and violence.

this shows that not everyone is at equal risk of experiencing dv.

evaluation of the materialist explanation of dv

- Wilkinson and Pickett's research is useful in showing how social inequality produces stress and triggers conflict and violence in families

however Wilkinson and Pickett approach doesn't explain why women rather than men are the main victims. Marxist feminists also see inequality causing dv. Ansley describes wives as "takers of shit" she argues that dv is the product of capitalism: male workers are exploited at work and take their frustration on their wives.. this helps to explain why dv is male violence against females but fails to explain why not all male workers commit dv and doesnt account for cases of female violence.

theories of the family

describe the functionalist view of the family

they believe that society is based on a value consensus - a set of shared norms and values- into which society socialises its members. this enables them to to meet society's needs. cooperate harmoniously. functionalists regard society as a system made up of different parts/ sub systems that depend on each other, such as the family, education system and the economy. they often compare society to a biological organism like the human body.

what does murdock argue that the 4 basic functions of the family are

economic needs- such as food and shelter

socialisation of the young into society's shared norms and values

reproduction of the next generation without which society could not continue

stable satisfaction of the sex drive with the same partner preventing the social disruption caused by a sexual "free for all"

criticism of Murdock's functionalist perspective

whilst most sociologists would doubt that the 4 needs are important functions, some would argue that they could be performed equally well by other institutions or by non nuclear families.

others have his approach- Marxists and feminists reject his "rose tinted" harmonious view. they argue that functionalism neglects conflict and exploitation.

describe parsons' "functional fit" theory

the functions that the family performs will depend on the kind of society in which it is found. the functions that the family performs will affect its structure

what does parsons distinguishes between 2 kinds of family

nuclear family

extended family- three generations living under 1 roof

according to parsons there were 2 types of society- modern industrial society and traditional pre industrial society. he argues that the nuclear family fits the needs of industrial society and extended fits the needs of the preindustrial family.

in parson's view when Britain began to industrialise from the late 18th century onwards, the extended family started to give way the nuclear. this was sue to the emerging industrial society had different needs from pre industrial society and the family had to adapt to meet these needs.

describe a geographically mobile workforce

Parsons argued that the nuclear family is better suited to the frequent relocations required by modern, shifting industries. Its smaller size allows it to move more easily than an extended family, which traditionally lives in a fixed location and includes multiple generations.

describe a socially mobile workforce

Modern industrial society prioritizes achieved status (based on personal efforts) over ascribed status (based on family background). In a nuclear family, individuals have greater independence to pursue careers and advancement based on their skills and hard work, unlike in extended families where status is inherited within the household structure. Overall, Parsons concluded that the nuclear family structure supports the flexibility and individual achievement needed for a mobile and skilled workforce in a constantly evolving industrial society.

describe parson's view on the loss of functions

the pre industrial family was a multi functional unit eg it was both a unit of production and consumption. but according to parsons when society industrialises it not only changes its structure from extended to nuclear, it also loses many functions. eg the family no longer is no longer a unit of production but remains to be a unit of consumption. in his view as a result of this loss the modern nuclear family comes to specialise in just 2 essential/ "irreducible" functions.

in parsons view what was the 2 essential/ "irreducible" functions for the family

primary socialisation of children to equip them with the basic skills and society's values, it enable them to cooperate with others and begin to integrate them into society.

stabilisation of adult personalities- the family is a place where adults can relax and release tensions, enabling them to return to the workplace refreshed and ready. this is functional for the efficiency of the economy.

describe the marxist view of the family

they see capitalist society as based on an unequal conflict between 2 social classes

capitalist class- who owns the means of production

working class- labour the capitalists exploit for profit.

Marxists see all of society's institutions such as the education system as helping to maintain class inequality and capitalism.

for Marxists the functions of the family are performed purely for the benefits of the capitalist system.

describe inheritance of property

Marxists believe that social institutions, including the family, are shaped by the mode of production—meaning the ownership and control over society's productive resources, like land, tools, and machinery. They argue that as society's economic structure changes, so do family forms and functions, reflecting shifts in who controls these resources.

Primitive Communism

Marx described the earliest societies as "primitive communism," a stage in which there was no private property. Resources were communally owned, and there was no concept of private ownership of land or production.

Family Structure in Primitive Society

According to Friedrich Engels, early societies had no family structures as we know them. Instead, people lived in "promiscuous hordes" or tribal groups, where there were no restrictions on sexual relationships, and kinship was collective rather than family-based. This communal living arrangement changed as societies developed private property and class distinctions.

describe private property and inheritance

As the forces of production developed, society's wealth grew, leading to the rise of private property. A class of men gained control over the means of production, and this shift eventually led to the formation of the patriarchal monogamous nuclear family. According to Engels, monogamy became necessary due to the inheritance of private property; men needed certainty over their children's paternity to ensure their legitimate heirs inherited their wealth.

Engels saw this development as a "world historical defeat of the female sex", as it brought women's sexuality under male control, reducing women to "mere instruments for the production of children." Marxists argue that women can only be freed from patriarchal control through the overthrow of capitalism and private ownership of production. In a future classless society, with collective ownership of resources, the patriarchal family would no longer be needed, as there would

describe ideological functions

Marxists argue that the family serves ideological functions that support capitalism by promoting beliefs that justify inequality and maintain the system. Through family life, children are socialized to accept hierarchy and inequality as natural. Parental authority, especially paternal power, teaches them to expect a power structure, preparing them to accept orders from capitalist employers later in life.

Sociologist Zaretsky adds that the family provides an illusion of a "haven" from the harsh realities of capitalism, a space where workers feel they can escape exploitation. However, he argues that this is largely an illusion, as the family cannot truly meet its members' needs under capitalism.

describe a unit of consumption

unit of consumption

Capitalism exploits the labour othe workers, making a profit by selling the products of their labour for more than it pays them to produce these commodities. The

Family therefore plays a major role in generating profits for

capitalists, since it is an important market for the sale of

consumer goods:

• Advertisers urge families to keep up with the Joneses by

consuming all the latest products.

•The media target to children who use pester power to

persuade parents to spend more.

• Children who lack the latest clothes or 'must have' gadgets are mocked and stigmatised by their peers.

Thus, Marxists see the family as pertorming several functions that maintain capitalist society: the inheritance of private property, socialisation into acceptance of inequality, and a source of profits. In the Marxist view, while these may benefit capitalism, they do not benefit the members of the family

criticisms of the marxist view

Criticisms of the Marxist perspective

• Marxists tend to assume that the nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society. This ignores the wide variety of family structures found in society today.

• Feminists argue that the Marxist emphasis on class and capitalism underestimates the importance of gender inequalities within the family. In the feminist view, these are more fundamental than class inequalities and the family primarily serves the interests of men, not capitalism.

• Functionalists argue that Marxists ignore the very real benefits that the family provides for its members.

describe the feminist view

feminists take a conflict view of the family and they argue that it oppresses women. they focus on issues such as the unequal division of domestic labour and domestic violence against women. they do not regard gender inequality as natural but something created by society.

describe liberal feminism

often they are concerned with campaigning against sex discrimination and for equal rights and opportunities.

they argue women's oppression is being gradually overcome through changing people's attitude and through changes in the law such as the sex discrimination act which outlaws discrimination in employment.

they believe we are moving towards greater equality but believe full equality will be occur through further reforms.

describe liberal feminism in terms of family

hold a similar view to that of young and wilmott's march of progress view. whilst they believe that full equality has noy yet been achieved but progress has been made

Criticisms of Liberal Feminism

fails to challenge the underlying cause of women's oppression and believing that changes in the law or in people's attitudes will be enough to bring equality

describe marxist feminism

argue that the main cause of women's oppression in the family is capitalism.

what functions do women's oppression perform for capitalsim

women reproduce the labour force through their unpaid domestic labour., by socialising the next generation of workers and maintain and servicing the current one.

women absorb anger that would otherwise by directed at capitalism. ansley describes wives as "takers of shit"

women are a reserve army of cheap labour that can be taken on when extra workers are needed and "let them go " when they are no longer needed and return back to unpaid domestic labour.

how do marxist feminists see family

see the oppression of women in the family as linked to the exploitation of the w/c. they argue that the family must be abolished at the same time as a socialist revolution replaces capitalism with a classless society

Criticism of marxist feminism

ignores sexism in non-capitalist societies

fails to explain women's oppression by w/c men

describe radical feminism

argue that all societies have been founded on patriarchy. they view

men as the enemy- source of women's oppression and exploitation

the family and marriage are the key institutions in patriarchal- society. men benefit from women's unpaid domestic labour and from their sexual services- they dominate women through dv or the threat of it.

they argue that family must be abolished as they see it as the root of oppression and that the only way to overturn patriarchy is through separatism- women must organise themselves to live independently of men.

what is political lesbianism

The idea that heterosexual relationships are inevitably oppressive because they involve 'sleeping with the enemy'

criticisms of liberal feminism

fail to recognise that women's position has improved considerably

sommerville also argues that heterosexual attraction makes it unlikely separatism would work

describe difference feminism

they argue that we cannot generalise about women's experience. they argue that lesbian and heterosexual women, white and black and w/c and m/c women have very different experiences of the family from one another

critiscms of difference feminism

neglects the fact that all women share many of the same experiences.

what are the 2 weaknesses the personal life perspective states of functionalism, Marxist and feminist

they tend to assume that the traditional nuclear family is the dominant family type. this ignores the increased diversity of families today.

they are all structural theories. they assume that families and their members are simply passive puppets manipulated by the structure of society to perform certain functions. sociologists influenced by the interactionists and postmodernists argue that structural theories ignore the fact that we have some choice in creating our family relationships.

they argue that to understand family we must focus on the meanings its members give to their relationships.

describe the personal life perspective

strongly influenced by interactionist ideas and argues that to understand families. it shares the bottom up approach of interactionism.

what is the bottom up approach

emphasises the meanings that individual family members hold and how these shape their actions and relationships.

describe the recent birth rates

birth rate is the number of live births per thousand of the population.

there have been a long term decline in birth rates since 1900s.

England and wales. had a birth rate of 28.7 but by 2014 it had fallen to 12.2

but there have been fluctuations in birth rates with 3 "baby booms" in the 20th century. the first 2 came after the 2 world wars.. there was a third baby boom in the 1960s with A SHARP FALL IN THE 70S. THE RATE ROSE IN THE 80S AND FELL AGAIN IN THE EARLY 90s with some increase since 2001.

describe the fertility rate

it is the average number of children women will have during their fertile years.

the uk's rate has risen in recent years but it is much lower than in the past. from an all time low in 2001 of 1.63 per woman it rose to 1.83 in 2014. but it is far lower than the peak of 2.95 children in 1964 during the baby boom.

what are the factors determining birth rate

proportion of women at child bearing age, how fertile they are and how many children they have.

what do the changes in birth and fertility rate reflect

more women are remaining childless than in the past

women are post poning having children- average age to have children is 30 and fertility rates for women in their 30s and 40s are increasing. older women have fewer fertile years left and so produce fewer children.

reasons for the decline in birth rates- changing women's position

major changes-

legal equality with men- including right to vote

increased educational opportunities- girls now do better at school then boys.

more women in paid employment including laws that outlaw unequal pay and sex discrimination

changes in attitudes to family life

easier access to divorce, abortion and reliable contraception

according to harper, education of women is the most important as it had led to a change in mindset among women, resulting in fewer women. educated parents are more likely to use family planning and see other paths to life apart from traditional roles like housewives.

she also notes that once a pattern of low fertility lasts for more than one generation cultural norms about family changes and smaller families become the norm.

describe the decline in infant mortality rates

imr is the number of babies that die before their first birthday per thousand per year.

harper argues that a fall in imr leads to a fall in birth rates as if any infants die, parents have more children to replace those they have lost- so increasing the br.

in 1900s, the imr for the uk was 154 (15%) of babies died within their first birthday. these figures are higher than those of less developed countries today. eg in afghanistan was 117 in 2014.

reasons for the fall in the imr in the first half of the 20th century

improved housing and better sanitation such as clean drinking water - children are less susceptible to infection

better nutrition including that of mothers

better knowledge of hygiene, and child wealth

fall in the number of married women. working- may improve their and their baby's health

improved services

from the 1950s medical reasons played a major role.. eg mass immunisation against childhood diseases such as the whooping cough, measles and diphtheria, the use of antibiotics and improved midwifery and obstetric techniques all contributed to a fall in imr.

describe children are now an economic liability

until the late 19th century, children were economic assets to their parents as they could be sent out to work for income for their family. however. children are now becoming an economic liability

laws banning child labour, introducing compulsory education and raising the school leaving age mean that children remain economically dependant in parents for longer and longer.

changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms mean that the cost of bringing up children has risen, therefore the financial pressures of raising a child has increased and parents fell less willing to have a big family.

describe child centredness

childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individuals life. in terms of family size it has encouraged a shift from quantity to quality. parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on the few.

describe future trends in birth rates

fertility and birth rates have fallen over the last century. but there has been a slight increase in births since 2001.

this is partly due to immigration as on average mothers from outside the uk have a higher fertility rate than those born in the uk. babies born from mothers outside thw uk accounted for 25% of all births in 2011. but the projection for the period up to 2041 expects the annual number of births to be fairly constant at around 800,00 per year.

effects of changes in fertility on the family

- Smaller families mean that women are more likely to be free to go out to work - creating dual earner couple.

- Only one factor as couples may be able to have larger families & still afford childcare - allows them both to work full-time.

describe the dependency ratio

it is the relationship between the size of the working population and the size of the non working or dependant part of the population.

earnings, savings and taxes of the working population must support the dependant population. children make up a large part of the dependant population so a fall in the number of children reduces the "burden if dependency" on the working population.

but in the longer term, fewer babies being born will mean fewer young adults and a smaller working population and so burden of dependency may increase again.

describe vanishing children

falling fertility rates mean fewer children as a result childhood may become a lonelier experience. on the other hand fewer children could mean they be be mire valued.

describe the effects of changes in fertility on public services and policies.

a lower birth rate has consequences for public services. such as fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed. it also affects the cost of maternity and paternity leave and the types of housing that need to be built.

describe the ageing population

one effect of women having fewer babies is that the average age of the population is rising. - there are more old people relative to young people.

Describe the personal life perspective on types of family and kin

It emphasizes the importance of personal meanings in relationships, highlighting connections that individuals see as significant to their sense of identity and belonging. These include:

Relationships with friends, who may feel "like a sister or brother."

Fictive kin, such as a mother's best friend referred to as "auntie."

Gay and lesbian 'chosen families', formed by supportive networks of non-biological connections.

Relationships with dead relatives, who influence identity through memories and actions.

Relationships with pets, as children often see pets as "part of the family."

Such examples challenge conventional definitions of family and raise questions about what counts as family from the perspectives of those involved

Describe donor conceived children

Nordqvist and Smart found that the issue of blood and genes evoked mixed feelings. Some parents emphasized the importance of social relationships over biological ties in forming family bonds.

In cases where couples knew the donor, they faced further questions, such as whether the donor's parents should be considered grandparents or if the donor-conceived child is a sibling to the donor's other children. Lesbian couples, in particular, encountered challenges regarding equality between genetic and non-genetic mothers and the risk of the donor being viewed as the "real" second parent.

Evaluation of personal life perspective

•Nordqvist and Smart's study emphasises importance of personal life approach compared to top down approaches - helps us to understand how people construct and define their own family relationships

•It can take too broad a view and thus ignore what is special about relationships based on blood or marriage

•Rejects structural views about 'functions' of family, but still sees relationships as performing the function of providing a sense of belonging/relatedness.

•Acknowledges that this belonging is not always positive unlike functionalists

what is the death rate

number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.

reasons for the decline in death rate

Tranter 1996- over 3/4 of the decline in death rate 1850-1970 was due to the fall in the number of deaths from infectious diseases. Flu, scarlet fever, measles, smallpox and TB

by the 1950s so called diseases of affluence such as hear disease and cancers had replaced infectious diseases as the main cause of death. these diseases affected the middle aged and elderly more than the young.

describe improved nutrition as a reason for the decline in death rate

McKeown argues that improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in deaths. better nutrition increased resistance to infection and increased survival chance for those infected. but McKeown does not explain why females who received a smaller share of the family food supply lived loner. he also failed to explain why deaths from infectious diseases such as measles rose in time of improved nutrition.

describe medial improvements as a reason for the decline in death rate

before the 1950s despite some important innovations medical improvements played almost no part in the reduction of deaths from infectious diseases.

but after 1950s, improved medical knowledge, techniques and organisation did help to reduce the death rate. advances include the intro to antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusion, improved maternity services as well as setting up the nation heakth service in 1948. more recently, improved medications, bypass surgery and other developments have reduced deaths from heart disease by one third.

Describe smoking and diet as a reason for the decline in death rate

according to Harper the the greatest fall in death rate in recent decades is due to the reduction of the numebr of people who smoke. but in the 21st century obesity has replaced smoking as the new lifestyle epidemic. in 2012 one quarter of all adults in the uk were obese. but due to drug therapies, death from obesity is kept low. harper suggests we are moving to an "american "health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but a long lifespan is achieved through medication.

describe public health measures as a reason for the decline in death rate

in the 20th century, more effective central and local government with the necessary power to pass and enforce laws led to a range of improvements in public health and quality of the environment. these include improvements in housing ( better ventilated, less overcrowding ), purer drinking water. also the clean air acts reduced air pollution .

describe other social changes that led to a decrease in death rate

the decrease of dangerous manual occupation such as mining.

smaller famillies reduced rate of transmission of infection.

greater public knowledge

higher income allowing for healthier lifestyles.

What is life expectancy

How long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live. Death rates have fallen so life expectancy has increased. Such as males born in England in 1900 could expect to live until they were 50 (57 for females). Over the past 2 centuries, life expectancy has increased by about 2 years per decade