* Growth * Most nutrients break down into smaller molecules that are used to build bone muscles and other types of cells/tissues * New cells are produced * Maintenance * Damaged cells are repaired * Dead cells are replaced * Energy * Fuels biological processes and physical activities * Obtain chemical energy carried by plants and animals * Stored in cells then released when needed
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Endotherms and Ectotherms
* Endothermic (warm-blooded) * Energy from food is used to maintain constant body temperature * More nutrients are needed to support loss of energy * Larger endotherms need a consume larger quantities than smaller organisms * Ectothermic (cold-blooded) * Do not need as much energy to maintain body temperature * Energy comes from sources in their environment * Energy is not wasted in heating their body * Not as adaptable to cold environments
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Metabolism and Related Notes
* Metabolism * The total of all chemical reactions in an organism * Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism * Anabolism * Building up complex substances from simpler substances * Catabolism * Breaking up complex substances into simpler substances * Metabolic Rate * The rate at which metabolism occurs in an organism
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Metabolic Rate Trends
* Body Size * The larger the body the more energy is required to stay alive * Physical Activity * Muscles burn more energy than fat * Sex * Males are typically larger in size and have a greater proportion of muscle mass than females of the same size, age, and fitness level * Age * Metabolic rate decreases with age
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Food as Fuel
* Cells need energy to function * Nutrients from food are digested and circulated throughout the body * A nutrient is any substance that has a useful function in the body * Calorie * Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C
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Classification of Food
* Organic and Inorganic * Macronutrients and Micronutrients * Example: Complex Carbohydrates or minerals (such as calcium)
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Organic vs. Inorganic
* Organic * Produced by living organisms * Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins * Inorganic * From rocks, soil, and seas * Water and minerals
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Macronutrients vs. Micronutrients
* Macronutrients * Needed in large amounts * Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins * Micronutrients * Needed in small amounts * Vitamins and Minerals
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Carbohydrates
* Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen * Major source of energy * Often called “sugars” * Ready source of glucose * Excess stored as fat or glycogen * Cellulose (fibre) is indigestible but important
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Fats (Lipids)
* Concentrated source of energy * Double the energy of carbs * Made of C, H, and O but in different ratios * Used for insulation, forming cell membranes, protecting vital organs, and increasing nerve transmission
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Types of Fats
* Unsaturated Fats * Liquid at room temperature * Easier to digest * E.g. olive oil and canola oil * Saturated Fats * Solid at room temperature * Harder to digest * E.g. butter and lard
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Proteins
* Most abundant compound in the body * Used throughout the body * Structure for skin, bones, and organs * Also enzymes and hormones * Made of 20 amino acids * 8 are essential (get from diet) * Meat, eggs, milk, and fish
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Micronutrients
* Not an energy source * Consumed in small amounts * Vitamins * Muscle and growth function * Often act as coenzymes * Minerals * Iron (blood) * Calcium (bones)
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Water
* Most abundant substance in the body * 90% of blood plasma * Transports all nutrients * Forms extracellular fluid between cells * Regulates body temperature
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The Digestive System
* Digestion is the process of converting food substances to a state in which they can be absorbed by the lining of the digestive tract * Long tube open at both ends (Gastrointestinal tract or GI tract) * Also has accessory organs * Nutrients absorbed, waste eliminated * Converts food into usable form
* Food enters the oral cavity (mouth) * In humans, digestion begins in the mouth * Salivary Glands (3 Pairs) * Secrete Saliva
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Stage 2: Digestion (1)
* Teeth chew, saliva moistens * Enzyme in saliva (amylase) breaks down carbohydrates * Muscular tongue pushes food back to pharynx * Epiglottis - flap covers trachea so food does not get in * Food stretches walls of esophagus and travels downward through waves of contractions called peristalsis
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Food enters the Stomach
* Food enters the stomach as a bolus (A round ball of food that has been moistened so it can be swallowed) * The bolus enters the stomach through the cardiac sphincter * Stomach has extensive folds called rugae * Layers of smooth muscle help stomach contract and break food down further
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Esophagus to Stomach
* Peristaltic contractions move the food to the stomach where storage and mixing of food occurs * Cardiac sphincter at the top and pyloric sphincter at the bottom to keep food in stomach
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Stage 2: Digestion (2)
* Food moves in and out of the stomach through sphincters (circular muscles) * The stomach contracts and relaxes to churn the food (mechanical digestion) * Hydrochloric acid * Breaks down food, destroys bacteria in food * Pepsin * Breaks down proteins into polypeptides * Mucus * Protects stomach lining from acid and ulcers * Some absorption occurs in the stomach
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Mechanical Digestion
* Physical breakdown of food * Mouth (chewing) and stomach (churning) * Movement of food * Peristalsis * Wave-like muscle contractions
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Chemical Digestion
* In mouth, stomach, and small intestine * Chemicals (eg. HCl) and enzymes break down complex molecules in food
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When food is Present…
* Gastrin * Nerves in stomach detect food and release the hormone gastrin into bloodstream * Transported to gastric cells where it stimulates gastric juice release * Gastric juice (HCl) is very acidic with a pH of 2.0 * Kills microorganisms, stops amylase, and activates pepsinogen into pepsin (its active form)
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Pepsin
* The active form of pepsinogen * Protein-digesting enzyme produced in the stomach
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Stage 2: Digestion (3)
* Chyme is released into duodenum through the pyloric sphincter * Small Intestine * Up to 7 metres in length, 2.5 centimetres in diameter * 3 parts * Duodenum - enzymes added, digestion * Jejunum - digestion, some absorption * Ileum - majority of nutrient absorption * Secretes the enzyme peptidase which completes the digestion of proteins
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Duodenum
* First section of the small intestine * Basic pH (alkaline) * Neutralizes acidic chyme from stomach and inactivates pepsin back to pepsinogen
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Stage 3: Absorption
* Primary site of nutrient absorption to blood * 80% of nutrient absorption occurs here - diffusion * Only the small intestine can absorb lipids (fats), carbohydrates, and amino acids (from proteins) * Small intestine is lined with villi and microvilli * Finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption * Villi * Small, finger-like projections * Microvilli * Microscopic projections of epithelial cells
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Within each villus…
* Capillary Network * All nutrients, except fats, enter bloodstream via capillaries * Lacteal * Lymphatic vessel through which fats enter the circulatory system
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Large Intestine (1)
* 1.5 metres in length * AKA colon * Primary function is to reabsorb fluids and electrolytes * Harmless bacteria live here producing Vitamins K and B * Any undigested food that remains is called feces * Fecal matter is stored here before elimination through the anus
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The Appendix
* Small organ attached to the caecum * It was thought to be vestigial for a long time but now scientists believe that it may harbor small amounts of beneficial bacteria to repopulate intestinal flora after a bad diarrhea incident or antibiotic use
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The Large Intestine (2)
* The small intestine and the large intestine join at the caecum with the ileocecal valve * Large intestine = caecum + colon + rectum * 4 parts to the colon: * Ascending colon * Transverse colon * Descending colon * Sigmoid colon
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Remember… (The Digestive System)
* As digested matter passes through the colon, any excess water is absorbed back into the body * Vitamins and ions are absorbed with the water * Rectum holds solid waste until time for elimination through the anus
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Stage 4: Egestion/Excretion
* Occurs in the large intestine * Main components of feces * Cellulose * Living and dead bacteria * Water * Toxic wastes are removed * People who eat less cellulose have fewer bowel movements and are at risk of colon cancer
* Parotid glands secrete watery fluid that contains salivary amylase * Other two glands produce slippery mucus to help swallow food bolus
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Liver
* Second largest organ in the body * Produces bile * Emulsifies fats * Filters the blood * Extracts toxins and prepares nutrients for circulation * Stores glucose as glycogen * Regulates metabolism (blood sugar levels)
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Gallbladder
* Receives, stores, and concentrates bile from liver * When fats enter duodenum, duodenum releases hormone CCK * CCK signals the gallbladder to secrete bile to duodenum to emulsify fats
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Pancreas
* Finger/leaf shaped organ that cradles below and behind the stomach * Secretes hormones and enzymes * Acidity of chyme entering small intestine from stomach signals duodenum to secrete hormone secretin * Secretin stimulates the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate * Other pancreatic digestive enzymes: * Lipases (break down fats) * Proteases (break down proteins) * Carbohydrases (break down carbohydrates) * Secretes insulin and glucagon hormones to regulate blood sugar levels
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Homeostasis
* Maintenance of steady internal state * Maintained through negative feedback loops * Example: Insulin regulates blood sugar levels * Normal levels between 4-6 mmol/L * Blood sugar levels increase (e.g. after a meal) * Pancreas releases insulin * Uptake in glucose from blood to cell * Blood sugar levels decrease (e.g. skipped a meal) * Pancreas releases glucagon * Glucagon causes liver to release glucose into bloodstream
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Enzymes
* Pepsin * Produced by stomach * Active in stomach * Only when pH is low * Acts upon proteins * Bile * Produced by liver * Present in gallbladder and active in small intestine * Acts upon carbohydrates * Amylase * Produced by salivary glands * Present/active in mouth/saliva * Acts upon starches * Hydrochloric acid * Produced by stomach * Present/active in stomach * Provides proper pH for pepsin (to break down proteins) * Lipases, Proteases, and Carbohydrases * Produced by pancreas * Present/active in small intestine * Act upon fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
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Chron’s Disease
* Chronic inflammatory bowel disease * Most common in the small/large intestine * Causes: * Possible hereditary link to autoimmune disease (25%) * Possible bacterial or viral infection * Symptoms * Abdominal pain * Intestinal bleeding * Diarrhea * Nausea and vomiting * Loss of appetite * Weight loss * Fever * Diagnosis * Barium X-ray * Colonoscopy * Treatment * No cure * Medication to control inflammation or associated problems * Avoidance of “trigger foods” * Removal of blocked segments
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Stomach (Gastric) Cancer
* Cancer of tissues lining stomach * Exact cause unknown * Risk factors: * H. Pylori Infection * Smoking * Poor diet * Symptoms * Nausea and vomiting * Heartburn and indigestion * Fatigue * Stomach pain * Feeling full after eating little * Diagnosis * Barium swallow x-ray * Endoscopy or biopsy * CT scans * Treatment * Radiation therapy or chemotherapy * To shrink tumour * Gastrectomy * Partial or total removal
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Cirrhosis
* Scarring of the liver * Leads to loss of liver function * Caused by chronic damage to liver (e.g. hepatitis and alcoholism) * Symptoms * Fatigue * Loss of appetite * Easy bruising and bleeding * Nausea and vomiting * Fluid retention in abdominal region * Diagnosis * Blood tests * Ultrasound * Liver biopsy * CT or MRI scan * Treatment * Damage cannot be reversed * Avoidance of alcohol * Liver transplant
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Blood Vessels
* Arteries * Thick-walled vessels that always carry oxygenated blood away from the heart * Veins * Thin-walled vessels that always carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart * Arteries→Arterioles→Capillaries→Venules→Veins
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Arteries
* Transports blood under pressure * Blood moves in a pulse-like wave throughout the circulatory system * Arterioles * Have smaller diameter than arteries and are less elastic * Contraction and relaxation of arteries is the major determinant of the overall blood pressure
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Capillaries
* Narrowest of all blood vessels * RBCs travel in a single file * Branching of the capillaries increases surface area for diffusion * Connects the arterial and venous systems
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Veins
* Thinner walls, larger diameter, less muscle than arteries, and they contain valves * Contains 70% of total blood volume * Most veins must work against gravity * Allow one-way flow of blood * Contraction of skeletal muscles moves blood toward heart * If veins are constantly stretched, they will lose their elasticity and varicose veins will form
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The Heart
* Size of your fist * Hardest-working muscle in the body * Contains 4 chambers * Left and right atria (receiving chambers) * Left and right ventricles (delivery chambers) * The left and right sides of the right are separated by a muscular septum * The heart is protected by the ribcage, sternum, and spine
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Pathways of Blood
* Pulmonary Circuit * Pumps blood to lungs * Right side of the heart * Low-pressure system * Systemic Circuit * Pumps blood to the rest of the body * Left side of the heart * High-pressure system
Left Atrium→Bicuspid Valve/Left AV Valve/Matrial Valve→Left Ventricle→Aortic Semilunar Valve→Aorta→Smaller Systemic Arteries→Arterioles→Capillaries→Venules→Veins→Vena Cava (Superior & Inferior)→Right Atrium
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Coronary Circulation
* Delivers oxygenated blood directly to the heart * Consists of the left and right coronary arteries
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Cardiac Contractions
* The heart’s intrinsic contractions are maintained by the sinoatrial (SA) node in the right atrium * The nerves can control the strength and rate of the heart’s contractions * The SA node passes the signal through the atrioventricular (AV) node * There is a 0.1 second delay the AV node before the signal travels to the ventricles * The signal travels to the ventricles via the Perkinje fibres and the Bundle of His * The signal delay cause the atria to contract simultaneously before the ventricles
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Specialization of Cardiac Muscle
The rhythmic contractions of the heart are due to special characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
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Coronary Artery Disease
* Plaque buildup in coronary arteries
* Prevents the heart from oxygen-rich blood * Causes/Risk Factors * Smoking and Alcoholism * High Blood Pressure * High Blood Cholesterol * Stress * Diabetes * Obesity * Lack of Physical Activity * Age, Gender, and Family History * Symptoms * Shortness of Breath * Angina * Diagnosis * Electrocardiogram * Echocardiogram * Chest X-ray * Blood tests * Treatment * Angioplasty * Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery * Medications * Decrease blood pressure, blood cholesterol, etc. * Lifestyle Changes * Increase physical activity and focus on healthy diet
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Leukemia
* Bone Marrow Cancer: Abnormal WBC overproduction * WBCs do not die properly * Bone Marrow Overcrowding * Reduced RBC, platelet production * Causes/Risk Factors * Radiation/Chemotherapy * Benzene Exposure * Smoking * Symptoms * Swollen, pain-free lymph nodes * Bleeding and bruising easily * Fevers and night sweats * Frequent infections * Fatigue * Unexplained weight loss * Diagnosis * Physical Exam * Swollen lymph nodes, spleen, liver * Blood Test * High WBCs and/or Low hemoglobin and platelets * Bone Marrow Biopsy * Treatment * Bone Marrow Transplant * Chemotherapy * Radiation Therapy * Stem Cell Transplant
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Marfan’s Syndrome
* Heritable disease that affects connective tissue * 25% of all cases are a result of a spontaneous mutation * Symptoms * Tall and Slender * Retinal Displacement * Aortic Dilation * Easily puncturable leading to sudden death * Leaky Heart Valves * Heart murmour * Diagnosis * Physical Exam * Genetic Analysis * Rarely Completed * Treatment * Skeletal: Orthopedic Braces and Surgery * Vision: Surgery and Glasses * Heart: Medications, Valve Replacements, Aortic Repair
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The Cardiac Cycle
* A continuous cycle of contraction and relaxation * Systole * Heart Contraction * Diastole * Heart Relaxation
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Systole
* Atria contract to further fill the ventricles * The Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves forced closed due to an increase in ventricular pressure * Ventricles contract to force blood from the heart * Right Ventricle→(Open Pulmonary Semilunar Valve)→Pulmonary Trunk→Pulmonary Arteries * Left Ventricle→(Open Aortic Semilunar Valve)→Aorta * Blood pressure is increased (120 mm Hg)
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Diastole
* Blood enters all four chambers: * Pulmonary Veins→Left Atrium * Vena Cava (Superior & Inferior)→Right Atrium
* The Tricuspid and Bicuspid Valves are open, allowing blood to flow into the left and right ventricles * The Pulmonary and Aortic Semilunar Valves close due to a decrease in ventricular pressure * Blood pressure is reduced (80 mm Hg)
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Lub Dub
* Heart valves open and close at different times to ensure blood flows in the proper direction * “**Lub**:” Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves close (Beginning of systole) * “**Dub**:” Pulmonary and Aortic Semilunar valves close (End of Systole)
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Some Common Causes of High Blood Pressure
* Generally these cause blood vessels to get narrow and/or your heart to beat faster * Some examples: * Poor diet * Kidney and hormone problems, diabetes, and high cholesterol * Family history or genetic predisposition * Lack of physical activity * Older age * Being overweight or obese * Some medicines * Tobacco and/or alcohol use * Stress
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Blood Pressure
* Larger Arteries * Blood Pressure: High * Velocity: High * Total Area: Low * Smaller Arteries * Blood Pressure: Slightly lower than larger arteries * Velocity: Slightly lower than larger arteries * Total Area: Slightly higher than larger arteries * Arterioles: * Blood Pressure: Lower than smaller arteries * Velocity: Lower than smaller arteries * Total Area: Higher than smaller arteries * Capillaries * Blood Pressure: Low * Velocity: Very low * Total Area: Highest * Venules * Blood Pressure: Low * Velocity: Low * Total Area: High * Veins * Blood Pressure: Low * Velocity: Moderate * Total Area: Low
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Altitude & Oxygen
* Altitude increases, oxygen concentration decreases * Body temporarily increases blood pressure & heart rate * Adaptation occurs over a couple of days * Body produces hemoglobin and red blood cells * Enhanced oxygen-carrying capacity
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Altitude Training
* Athletes live and train at high altitudes before events * Increases red blood cell mass and hemoglobin * Enhanced oxygen-carrying capacity in blood
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Cellular Respiration
* Extra energy boosts aerobic cellular respiration * Improves VO2 max * Delays lactic acid production, soreness, & fatigue * Some athletes attempt blood doping * Inject extra red blood cells before events
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Blood Doping
* Athlete donates a pint or two of their own blood * Blood is placed in centrifuge and spins at high speeds * Red blood cells (oxygen carriers) forced to bottom * Liquid part (plasma) drawn off and re-injected into athlete * Red blood cells stored (sometimes frozen) * Day before competition, stored red blood cells are re-injected * Improves blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity
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Components of Blood
* Blood Plasma * 55% of total blood volume * Cellular Components * 45% of total blood volume * Buffy Coat * White Blood Cells * Platelets * Red Blood Cells
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Blood Plasma
* Yellowish liquid component of blood * Holds blood cells in suspension * Carries cells, carbon dioxide, and proteins * 55% of total blood volume
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Erythrocytes: Red Blood Cells
* Produced by bone marrow, stored in spleen * Constantly destroyed and replaced * Distinct biconcave shape * Flattened disc, pinched centre * Flexible for travelling through blood vessels * No nucleus * No mitochondria * Contains special hemoglobin molecule
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Hemoglobin
* Complex protein: 4 protein chains, central iron-containing heme group * Iron: Gives red blood cells red colour * Iron’s function: Binds with oxygen, oxgenates blood * Oxygen’s carrying capacity: 4 oxygen molecules per hemoglobin molecule * Iron recycling: Occurs in bone marrow
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Leukocytes: White Blood Cells
* Produced in bone marrow * Larger than red blood cells, fewer in number * Amoeboid shape * Contain nucleus and lysosomes * Part of the body’s immune response system * Detect and defend against infection and disease * Lysosomes: Digest foreign bacteria * Pus formation: At the site of infection * Pus Components: Living and dead white blood cells, bacteria * Pus as natural “soap” * WBC increase: Indication of body fighting infection
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Leukemia
* Cancer of white blood cells * Excess white blood cells in bone marrow * Bone marrow unable to make other blood cells * Can leave bone marrow, travel into bloodstream, and affect other organs
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Platelets
* Fragments of special cells from bone marrow * Important for circulatory system repair * Form blood clots
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Blood Clotting
* Detects damaged blood vessels, bursts, and releases adhesive chemicals * Platelets stick together at the site of damage * Chemical reactions create strand-like fibrin molecules, form mesh (blood clot) * Prevents blood loss, hold vessel wound together * Clot supports wound until new tissue grows
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Hemophilia
Absence of clotting proteins in an individual
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The Respiratory System
* Respiration * The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an individual and their environment * The respiratory system supplies oxygen to body cells and removes carbon dioxide
* Gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood vessels (pulmonary capillaries) * Alveoli must be moist to allow for diffusion * Oxygen diffuses into capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses out to alveoli * The blood carries the oxygen from the lungs to the body cells
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Internal Respiration
* Gas exchange between the blood and the body cells * Oxygen diffuses out of the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses in * Allows for cellular respiration to occur
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Cellular Respiration
* Occurs in the mitochondria of every cell * Cells produce ATP (energy) when glucose breaks down in the presence of oxygen * Byproducts include water and carbon dioxide * C6H12O6 + O2 → H2O + CO2 + ATP
* Air enters through the nares (nostrils) * Warmed (capillaries), Filtered (cilia), and moistened * Inhaling through the mouth misses some steps
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Pharynx
* Common path for air and food (throat) * Branches into the esophagus and the trachea
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Larynx
* Vocal chords for sound production, breathing, and swallowing
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Trachea
* Connects the pharynx to the lungs * Rings of cartilage protect the tube from collapsing * Divides into a bronchus on each side
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Lungs
* Joined to the trachea by two bronchi * The bronchi divide into smaller bronchioles * Each bronchiole ends in an alveolar sac
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Alveoli
* Tiny, hollow air sacs * One cell thick * Surrounded by capillary system * Functional unit sof the respiratory system * Where gas exchange occurs * Increases surface area
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Diaphragm
* Large, dome-shaped sheet of skeletal muscle (voluntary muscle) * Under the ribs, separates the thoracic cavity (heart and lungs) from the abdominal cavity (all other organs) * Essential to breathing
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Inhalation
* Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract * Ribs move up and out, chest cavity enlarges, and pressure decreases * Air rushes in from higher pressure environment
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Exhalation
* Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax * Ribs compress, chest cavity gets smaller, and pressure increases * Air escapes to lower pressure environment
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Breathing
* Involuntary inhalation & exhalation * Delivers oxygen to alveoli and removes carbon dioxide * Medulla Oblongata * Brain region that controls breathing
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Gas Exchange
Occurs between the alveoli and the capillaries due to concentration differences
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Control of Breathing
* Chemoreceptors detect change in blood pH * Blood high in CO2 has lower than normal pH * Drop in pH causes Medulla Oblongata to stimulate breathing
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Oxygen Transport
* Oxygen is carried by hemoglobin in red blood cells * Hemoglobin picks up oxygen in high concentration areas * Hemoglobin releases oxygen in low concentration areas * Oxygen binds with hemoglobin via hydrogen bonds * oxygen + hemoglobin → oxyhemoglobin
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Carbon Dioxide Transport
* Carbon dioxide is carried as bicarbonate ions in blood * Red blood cells pick up carbon dioxide in high concentration areas * Carbon dioxide converted to bicarbonate in red blood cells * Bicarbonate converted back to carbon dioxide in low concentration areas * Carbon dioxide released from red blood cells * carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid * Some carbon dioxide is carried by hemoglobin as carboxyhemoglobin * Some carbon dioxide dissolves in blood plasma
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Human Lung Capacity
* Influenced by many factors: * Age * Sex * Body Position * Strength of diaphragm * Strength of chest muscles
* The average human breathes 12-20 times per minute
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Measurements
* Tidal Volume: The amount of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath * Inspiratory Reserve Volume: The amount of air inhaled after a normal inhalation * Expiratory Reserve Volume: The amount of air forcefully exhaled after a normal exhalation * Vital Capacity: The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled * Residual Volume: The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forceful exhalation