Unit 3 Development and Learning (New CED)

Separation anxiety

the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs

Parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

Pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Imaginary Audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

Personal fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

Social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Stage theory of psychosocial development

Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality

Trust vs. mistrust

Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

Initiative v. guilt

3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves

Industry v. Inferiority

4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior

Identity v. role confusion

5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction

Intimacy v. isolation

6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service

Integrity v. despair

8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life)

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home.

Achievement (adolescent development)

Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration.

Diffusion (adolescent development)

Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity

Foreclosure (adolescent development)

Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration

Moratorium (adolescent development)

Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration

racial and ethnic identity

the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership

Sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

Religious identity

a sense of belonging to a religious group

Occupational identity

Occupations that we engage in define who we are

Familial identity

the sense of self as always connected to family and others

Possible selves

images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future

Behavioral perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Association

any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Stimulus discrimination

a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

stimulus generalization

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response

Higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Counterconditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

Taste aversion

a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation

One-trial conditioning

when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Primary reinforcers

Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Secondary reinforcers

learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Superstitious behavior

a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary

Learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

fixed interval reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response

Fixed ratio reinforcement

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable ratio reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses

Scalloped graph

The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule

Social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Vicarious conditioning

classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person

Modeling

learning by imitating others; copying behavior

Insight learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Cognitive maps

An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.