Chapter 19/20 - Two Revolutions

Louis XVI (1754–1793)

• King of France, known for indecisiveness and financial weaknesses. - Referred to as "Citizen Louis Capet" after the monarchy was abolished.

Marie-Antoinette (1755–1793)

• Queen of France, notorious for extravagant spending and perceived foreign influence, leading to unpopularity.

Financial Crisis (Pre-Revolution)

• Caused by a combination of wars, deficit spending, and tax inequality.

Turgot (1727–1781)

• Economic Advisor who attempted financial reforms but faced opposition from the nobility.

Necker (1732–1804)

• Served as finance minister, popular with the public, and tried to increase government transparency.

Calonne (1734–1802)

• Proposed a land tax reform which was rejected by Parlements.

Influence of Enlightenment Thinkers

• Philosophers like Voltaire, Burke, and Fichte inspired public opinion and reform ideas crucial to the revolution.

Parlements

• Judicial bodies controlled by nobility, which blocked royal reforms and asserted their right to approve laws. - Their actions reflected a resistance to the monarchy and contributed to the political deadlock preceding the revolution in 1789.

Estates General (May 1789)

• Composition:
  • First Estate: Clergy.
  • Second Estate: Nobility.
  • Third Estate: Commoners, approximately 98\% of the population.
• Reason for Assembly: - Called to address a significant fiscal crisis.
• Doubling the Third Estate: - An increase in the number of delegates for the Third Estate, leading to greater political power for commoners.

Cahiers de Doléances

• Definition: - Lists of grievances submitted by local communities to the Estates General.
• Contents: - Critiques of taxation, feudal privileges, and social inequality.
• Significance: - Provided an essential insight into the growing revolutionary pressures among the populace.

National Assembly / Tennis Court Oath (June 1789)

• Formation: - The Third Estate declared itself as the National Assembly, asserting its sovereignty over governance.
• Tennis Court Oath: - A vow made not to disband until a new constitution was established. - Signified the beginning of revolutionary constitutionalism.

Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)

• Event Description: - A mob from Paris stormed the Bastille, a fortress-prison viewed as a symbol of royal tyranny.
• Significance: - This event ignited a national revolutionary fervor and is commemorated as a French national holiday.

Great Fear (July–August 1789)

• Events: - Rural peasants staged attacks on manorial estates out of fear of aristocratic reprisal following the storming of the Bastille.
• Consequences: - Contributed directly to the abolition of feudal privileges in France.

Night of August 4, 1789

• Actions: - The National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism and special privileges, which was a key step towards egalitarian legal reform.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (August 1789)

• Inspiration: - Influenced heavily by Enlightenment ideals and the American Revolution.
• Core Principles Declared: - Liberty, equality, property rights, and resistance to oppression.
• Historical Importance: - Served as the foundational document for revolutionary legal and political structure.

March of Women / Women’s Influence (October 1789)

• Event Description: - Thousands of women marched on Versailles demanding bread and accountability from the royal family.
• Significance: - The march underscored the role and influence of citizens in revolutionary politics.

National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)

• Contributions: - Drafted a new constitution and restructured government, resulting in:
  • Departments and Arrondissements: New administrative subdivisions for governance.
  • Introduction of Assignats: A form of revolutionary paper currency.
  • Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790): Legislation that placed the church under state control.

Emigrés

• Definition: - Nobles who fled France to escape revolutionary reforms.
• Consequences: - Their emigrations encouraged foreign monarchs to intervene, leading to international tensions surrounding the revolution.

Declaration of Pillnitz (1791)

• Context: - Austria and Prussia threatened military intervention to restore the French monarchy.
• Effect: - This declaration fueled revolutionary nationalism and intensified the radicalization of the revolution.

Girondists

• Moderates who supported revolutionary efforts and war to spread revolution.

Jacobins

• A radical political club promoting centralized power and emphasizing equality and republicanism.

Sans-culottes

• Urban working-class revolutionaries who demanded direct democratic governance.

Montagnards / Mountains

• Radical Jacobins sitting on the highest benches in the Assembly, significant in leading the Reign of Terror.

Enragés

• Ultra-radicals pushing for extreme social equality, advocating against counter-revolutionaries.

September Massacres (1792)

• Description: - Mass killings of prisoners in Paris who were suspected of being counter-revolutionaries.
• Reflection of Climate: - Illustrates the radicalization and popular violence during the revolutionary period.

Levee en Masse (1793)

• Definition: - A form of mass conscription implemented to defend France from foreign and internal threats.
• Outcome: - Mobilized the entire population, creating a national military force as a reflection of radical nationalism during the French Revolutionary Wars.

Committee of Public Safety (1793–1795)

• Role: - Executive body controlling France during the Reign of Terror.
• Key Leaders: - Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), Lazare Carnot (1753–1823), and Louis Antoine de Saint-Just.
• Functions: - Directed the war effort, maintained internal security, and oversaw the legal processes related to revolutionary justice.
• Policies: - Enforced de-Christianization, the Cult of Reason, and established a Republic of Virtue.

Republic of Virtue / De-Christianization

• Overview: - A radical initiative to supplant traditional religious practices with civic cults emphasizing reasoned morality.
• Cult of Reason: - A civic religion purporting rational secular ethics.
• Cult of the Supreme Being: - Robespierre's attempt to merge civic religion with moral standards.

Law of the General Maximum (1793)

• Purpose: - Enacted price controls on grain and essential goods to alleviate economic hardship affecting urban workers.
• Part of Measures: - Integral to radical egalitarian policies during the Reign of Terror.

The Vendee (1793–1796)

• Uprising Context: - A royalist and Catholic rebellion in western France, reacting to anti-clerical policies and conscription.
• Government Response: - Brutally suppressed, highlighting the internal conflicts that arose during the radical phase of the revolution.

Self-Denying Ordinance (1791)

• Definition: - A legislative measure mandating that members of the National Assembly could not hold executive positions.
• Purpose: - Aimed to prevent the concentration of power, reflecting revolutionary concerns for checks on authority.

Constitution of 1795 / Directory

• Structure: - Established a bicameral legislature alongside a five-member executive known as the Directory.
• Response to Political Climate: - Aimed to stabilize France following the Thermidorian Reaction which led to Robespierre's removal.

Thermidorian Reaction (July 1794)

• Description: - The overthrow of Robespierre and radical Jacobins, marking the conclusion of the Reign of Terror.
• Aftermath: - Resulted in the relaxation of previous economic controls and a partial restoration of church powers, signifying a shift towards moderate republicanism.

Whiff of Grapeshot (1795)

• Event: - Napoleon Bonaparte's military action to quell a royalist uprising in Paris.
• Significance: - Demonstrated the rising influence of military leaders in the unstable political landscape post-Terror.

Conspiracy of Equals (1796)

• Leader: - Led by Gracchus Babeuf, representing a radical proto-communist conspiracy.
• Goals: - Advocated for extreme economic equality and public ownership of land.
• Government Action: - The conspiracy was suppressed, illustrating the limitations on radical egalitarianism following the Thermidor.

Marseillaise (1792)

• Description: - Revolutionary anthem composed by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle.
• Symbolism: - Became an iconic representation of French patriotism and nationalism, promoting mobilization and escalating revolutionary spirit.

Assignats

• Revolutionary paper currency backed by confiscated church properties, serving as a fiscal measure of the revolution.

Pain d’Égalité

• Government-regulated bread distribution initiative during radical economic reforms, reflecting government intervention aimed at ensuring social equality.

Radical Egalitarianism (Summary Feature)

• Features included price controls, levee en masse, enfranchisement of the sans-culottes, and economic reviews.

Secularization and Civic Religion (Summary Feature)

• Introduced the Cult of Reason, the Supreme Being, and policies aimed at de-Christianizing France.

Political Centralization and Terror (Summary Feature)

• The Committee of Public Safety executed counter-revolutionaries and implemented fear as a means of governance.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821)

• Background: - A military and political leader who emerged in the wake of the revolution's turmoil.
• Rise to Power: - Seized control in the 1799 coup (known as the coup of 18 Brumaire), established himself as First Consul, and proclaimed himself Emperor in 1804.
• Major Reforms: - Introduced the Code Napoleon, which standardized laws across France, emphasizing administrative centralization through prefects, and spurred economic modernization.
• Empire Expansion: - Under his rule, France grew into The Grand Empire, dominating various regions across Europe.

First Exile

• Banished to Elba in 1814 following military defeats.

Hundred Days

• Napoleon's return to power in 1815 led to renewed conflicts.

Final Defeat of Napoleon

• Defeated in the Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815), which ended his rule and led to the restoration of Louis XVIII.

Louis XVIII (1755–1824)

• Relation: - Younger brother of Louis XVI; he restored the Bourbon monarchy in France post-Napoleon.
• Governance: - Attempted to navigate a moderate monarchy within the framework set by the Congress of Vienna, aiming for stability post-Napoleonic Europe.

Prefects (Napoleonic Administration)

• Appointed officials responsible for administering departments, exemplifying centralized state authority.

Napoleonic Reforms

• Banking reforms, infrastructure development, and educational reforms through institutions like lycées set the groundwork for modern state institutions across Europe.

Agricultural Revolution (Britain, 18th c.)

• Innovations: - Advances such as crop rotation, selective breeding, and the enclosure movement increased agricultural output.
• Consequences: - Led to food surplus, freeing labor for industrial activities and promoting urban growth.
• Foundation for Industrial Revolution: - Provided not only labor but also capital and population growth necessary for industrial advancements.

Consumer Society (Britain, 18th c.)

• Market Expansion: - Growth in markets and demand spurred investment in manufactured goods within textile and consumer goods sectors.
• Emergence of Urban Middle Class: - A class with disposable income that fostered industrial growth significantly.

James Hargreaves (1720–1778)

• Invented the Spinning Jenny ($\sim1764$)$, allowing one worker to spin multiple threads concurrently, which accelerated textile production and instigated the rise of factories.

Richard Arkwright (1732–1792)

• Developed the Water Frame, a water-powered mechanism for large-scale spinning that transformed textile production and facilitated a factory-based labor system.

Edmund Cartwright (1743–1800)

• Creator of the power loom ($\sim1785$)$, this mechanization significantly boosted weaving outputs, hastening adoption of the factory system.

James Watt (1736–1819)

• Improved the steam engine (patent in 1769), a pivotal development for mechanization in industries and transportation. - Enabled steam-powered operations independent of water power, crucial for industrial growth.

Trevithick (1771–1833)

• Invented a high-pressure steam locomotive, triggering the development of railway transport that linked industrial zones.

George Stephenson (1781–1848)

• Developed The Rocket (1829), showcasing modern rail transport and its role in enhancing industrial trade.

Henry Cort (1740–1800)

• Introduced the puddling process (1784), enhancing the metal industry and bolstering infrastructure developments such as bridges and railways.

Steam Boat (Robert Fulton, 1765–1815)

• Enabled mechanized water transport, significantly reducing shipping times and costs, integrating markets across regions.

Fritz Harkort (1793–1880)

• A leading industrialist in Germany, exemplifying the transfer of industrial technology from Britain to Germany.

Friedrich List (1789–1846)

• An economist who advocated for national economic development through protectionist policies, influencing Germany's rapid industrialization.

Joint Stock Investment / Banks

• Enabled collaboration of capital for industrial projects such as railroads and factories, facilitating large-scale economic growth through entities like Credit Mobilier and Darmstadt Bank.

Impact of Railroads

• Enhanced transportation of goods and raw materials, promoting industrial economies. - Linked urban centers with resource-rich areas, thus stimulating market integration.

Interchangeable Parts

• Innovation Details: - Standardization of machine components increased manufacturing efficiency and repairability.
• Significance: - Essential for mass production processes, notably in textiles, firearms, and machinery.

Steam Power / Mechanization

• Consequences: - Allowed factories to operate independently from water sources, boosting productivity in textile mills, ironworks, and coal mining.

Urbanization (Economic & Social Effect)

• Significant migration of populations from rural to urban settings giving rise to distinct working-class communities.

Class Consciousness (Economic & Social Effect)

• Emergence of class divisions between the urban poor and the industrial bourgeoisie laid the groundwork for labor movements.

Public Health Issues (Economic & Social Effect)

• Industrialization led to public health crises, such as cholera outbreaks, prompting legislative responses like the Poor Law Commission and the Public Health Acts.

Great Famine & Hungry 40s

• Background: - Adverse crop failures and economic struggles highlighted industrial society vulnerabilities.
• Consequences: - Resulted in policy reforms, including the Poor Law Act (1834) and new food regulation measures.

Pauper Apprentices

• Definition: - Orphaned or impoverished children forced to work in factories under grievous conditions, showcasing systemic child labor exploitation.
• Consequences: - Resulted in public outcry and legislative changes, leading to reforms like the Factory Act of 1833, aimed at improving conditions.

Factory Act of 1833

• Legislation: - Regulated child labor within factories, limiting working hours and improving working conditions significantly.
• Significance: - Marked the first substantial governmental intervention in labor practices during the industrial era.

Ten Hours Act (1847)

• Purpose: - Limited working hours for women and children to ten hours per day, representing a notable advancement in labor legislation amidst early industrialization.

Coal Mines Act

• Legislation: - Implemented restrictions on child labor and women within mines, enhancing occupational safety in dangerous work environments.

Luddites (1811–1816)

• Definition: - Skilled workers who fought against machinery that posed threats to their employment through the destruction of machines.
• Significance: - An early form of protest against mechanization and the effects of industrial capitalism on livelihood.

Chartism (1838–1850s)

• Movement Overview: - A political movement representing the working class push for universal male suffrage, the secret ballot, and other reforms in Britain.
• Significance: - Reflected the growing class consciousness and economic demands of the industrial society.

Robert Owen (1771–1858)

• Role: - A notable industrialist and social reformer who worked to improve working conditions within his mills.
• Vision: - Advocated for utopian communities and cooperative labor initiatives, early initiatives in social reform.

Charles Dickens (1812–1870)

• Contribution: - A prominent author who highlighted the plight of urban poverty and issues faced by the working class in works such as "Hard Times" and "Oliver Twist."
• Impact: - Critically examined the social consequences of rapid industrialization within his narratives.

Edwin Chadwick (1800–1890)

• Role: - A social reformer who championed public health and sanitation.
• Legacy: - His advocacy led to improved urban infrastructure and foundational measures like the Public Health Acts.

Kay / Shuttleworth

• Innovators in textile machinery who enhanced industrial efficiency and facilitated mass production and the growth of the factory system.

Josephine Butler (1828–1906)

• A strong advocate for women's rights and labor reforms concerning sexual exploitation and working conditions, stressing the links between social reform and the industrial context.