Exam 4 a&p 2

Lymph nodes functions

1. Cleanse the lymph 2. Act as a site of T and B cell activation

Lymph nodes

Enclosed with fibrous capsule with trabecular that divide interior into compartments, stroma of reticular fibers and reticular cells

Lymph nodes

Parenchyma divided into cortex and medulla, germinal centers where B cells multiply and differentiate into plasma cells

Lymph nodes

Several efferent lymphatic vessels lead into the node along its convex surface, lymph leaves the node through one to three efferent lymphatic vessels that leave the hilum

Tonsils

Patches of lymphatic tissue located at the entrance to the pharynx

Tonsils functions

1. Guard against ingested or inhaled pathogens 2. Covered with epithelium 3. Have deep pits; tonsillar crypts lined with lymphatic nodules

Palatine tonsils

Pair at posterior margin of oral cavity, most commonly infected

Lingual tonsils

Pair at root of tongue

Pharyngeal tonsils adenoids)

Single tonsil on wall of nasopharynx

Spleen

The body's largest lymphatic organ

Red pulp

Sinuses filled with erythrocytes

White pulp

Lymphocytes macrophages surrounding small branches of splenic artery

Spleen function

Healthy RBCS come and go, for old fragile RBCS spleen is erythrocyte graveyard, blood cell production in fetus, white pulp monitors blood for foreign antigens and keeps an army of monocytes for release when needed

Pathogens

Viruses, bacteria, fungi

Three lines of defense

1. Skin and mucous membranes 2 several innate defense mechanisms, leukocytes and macrophages 3. Adaptive immunity, defeats a pathogen

Innate immunity

Guard equally against a broad range of pathogens

Three kinds of innate defenses

1. Protective proteins 2. Protective cells 3. Protective processes

Adaptive immunity

Billy must develop separate immunity to each pathogen

Skin

Makes it difficult for microorganisms to enter the body, toughness of keratin, too dry and nutrient poor for microbial growth

Mucous membranes

Mucus physically traps microbes, lysozome: enzyme destroys bacterial cell walls

Leukocytes and macrophages

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes

Neutrophils

1. wander in connective tissue killing bacteria 2. Can kill using phagocytosis and digestion 3. Can kill by producing a cloud of bactericidal chemicals

Eosinophils

1. Found especially in mucous membranes 2. Guard against parasites, allergens, and other pathogens 3. Kill tapeworms and roundworms by producing superoxide hydrogen peroxide, and toxic proteins

Basophils

Secrete chemicals that aid mobility and action of other leukocytes

Lymphocytes

TB, and NK cells

Monocytes

Emigrate from the blood into CT and transform into macrophages

Macrophage system

All the body's avidly phagocytic cells

Antimicrobial proteins

Proteins that inhibit microbial reproduction and provide short term innate immunity to pathogenic bacteria and viruses

Interferons

Secreted by certain cells infected by viruses

Interferons

The alerted cell synthesizes various proteins that defend it from infection, breaks down viral genes or prevents replication also activates NK cells andmacrophages

Complement system

A group of 30 or more globular proteins that make powerful contributions to both innate immunity and adaptive immunity 1) synthesizedmainly by liver 2) circulate in the blood in inactive form 3) activated by presence of A pathogen

Inflammation

Activates and attracts neutrophils and macrophages, speeds pathogen destruction in inflammation

Immune clearance

Macrophages of liver andspleen strip off and destroy ag-ab complexes leaving RBCS unharmed

Phagocytosis

Neutrophils and macrophages can't phagocytize naked bacteria viruses, or other pathogens

Cytolysis

Attracts more complement proteins - membrane attack complex forms

Natural killer cells (nk)

Continually patrol body looking for pathogens and diseased host cells

NK cells

Attack and destroy bacteria transplanted cells, cells infected w/virus cancer cellsrelease proteins called perforins

Fever

1) promotes interferon activity 2) elevates metabolic rate and acceleratestissue repair 3) inhibits reproduction of bacteria and viruses

Inflammation

1) limits spread of pathogens then destroys them 2) removes debris from damaged tissue 3) initiates tissue repair

Four signs of inflammation

Redness, swelling, heat, pain

Mobilization of defenses

• get defensive leukocytes to the site quickly - achieved by local hyperemia -local vasodilation

Heat

Results from hyperemia

Redness

Due to hyperemia, and RBCS in this tissue

Swelling edema)

Due to increased fluid filtration from the capillaries

Pain

From direct injury to the nerves, pressure on nerves from edema

Respiratory system

Works with urinary system to regulate the body's acid/base balance

Functions of respiratory system

1) gas exchange 2) communication 3) olfaction 4) acid/base balance

Principal organs of respiratory system

Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

Incoming air

Stops in the alveoli

Conducting zone of respiratory system

No gas exchange

Respiratory zone of respiratory system

Consists of alveoli and other gas exchange regions

Upper respiratory tract

Nose through larynx

Lower respiratory tract

Trachea thru lungs

Functions of nose

1) warms, cleanses, and humidifies inhaledair 2) detects odors 5) serves as a resonating chamber that amplifies voice

Respiratory epithelium (nasal mucosa)

Ciliates pseudostratified columnar epithelium, goblet cells produce mucus

Olfactory epithelium nasal mucosa)

Sensory-detects odors

Nasopharynx

Most superior region of pharynx, only passes air,is lined by pseudo stratified columnar epithelium

Oropharynx

Middle region of pharynx S passes air, food, and drink, lined by stratified squamous epithelium

Laryngopharynx

Most inferior portion of pharynx, where esophagus beginsspasses air, food, and drink, lined by stratified squamous epithelium

Larynx (voice box)

Keeps food and drink out of airway

Epiglottis

Flap of tissue that guards superior opening of larynx, closes airway and directs food to esophagus behind it

Epiglottis cartilage

Most superior

Thyroid cartilage

Adams Apple

Superior vestibular folds (larynx)

Close the larynx during swallowing

Inferior vocal cords

Glottis- the vocal cords and the opening between them

Trachea

• anterior to esophagus - trachealis muscle spans opening in rings c-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage contracts or relaxes to adjust airflow

Trachea

Lined by ciliates pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Mucociliary escalator

Mechanism for debris removal in trachea

Middle tracheal layer

Contains lymphatic nodules mucous and serous glands and the tracheal cartilage

Carina

Directs the airflow to the right and left

Base of lungs

Broad concave portion resting on diaphragm

Apex of lungs

Tip that projects just above the clavicle

Costal surface of lungs

Pressed against the ribcage

Mediastinal surface

Faces medically towards the heart

hilum

Slit through which the lung receives the main bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves

Right lung

Has three lobes, superior, middle, and inferior

Left lung

Has two lobes, superior and inferior

Bronchial tree

Branching system of air tubes in each lung, lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Main bronchi

Supported by cshaped hyaline cartilage rings

Lobar (secondary bronchi)

Three on right, two on left

MALT

Mucousa associated lymphatic tissue

Bronchioles

Divides into terminal bronchioles, end of conducting zone

Respiratory bronchioles

Have alveoli budding from their walls, considered the beginning of the respiratory zone since alveoli participate in gas exchange

Cells of the alveolus

Squamous (type 1), great (type II), alveolar macrophages (dust cells)

Squamous (type 1) cells

Main cells, building blocks, thin cells allow rapid gas diffusion between air and blood

Great (type II) alveolar cells

Round to cuboidal cells, repair the alveolar epithelium when the squamous cells are damaged, secrete pulmonary surfactant (reduces surface tension)

Dust cells (alveolar macrophages)

Wander lumens of alveoli and CT between them, keep alveoli free from debris by phagocytizing dust particles

Respiratory membrane

Thin barrier between the alveolar air and blood, consists of three layers

Visceral pleura

Serous membrane that covers lungs

Parietal pleura

Adheres to mediastinum, inner surface of the rib cage,and superior surface of the diaphragm

Pleural cavity

Potential space between pleurae

Functions of pleurae

Reduction of friction, compartmentalization

Inspiration

Inhaling

Expiration

Exhaling

Quiet respiration

Breathing while at rest, effortless, automatic

Forced respiration

Deep rapid breathing, such as during exercise

Diaphragm

Prime mover of respiration

Internal and external intercostal muscles

Synergists to diaphragm

Scalenes

Synergistic to diaphragm

Respiratory muscles

Erector spinae, sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, serratus anterior, scalenes