Issues of good and evil

what makes an act 'wrong' - Christians

-Christians believe that a 'wrong' action is a sin that harms their relationship with God

-a Christian may consider a variety of sources to help them make a moral decision, e.g. they may look to scripture, religious leaders, tradition, conscience, reason, the law or a combination of these

-some Christians might consider traditional Church teaching: 'You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal.'

-Orthodox, Catholic or Church of England Christians can refer to religious leaders who they trust as experts because, as God's representatives on earth, such leaders have made pronouncements on moral issues in the past: 'one may not do evil so that good may result from it' ( from Catechism of the Catholic Church, an official document that sums up the beliefs of Catholics and gives them moral guidance )

what makes an act 'wrong' - Muslims

-the purpose of Shariah Law is to clearly set out for Muslims exactly how Allah wants them to live, so they can be close to him

-it organises and regulates society, and helps humans gain salvation by enforcing Allah's commands, therefore breaking Shariah Law is wrong because it goes against the will of Allah

-the rules regarding human behaviour range from compulsory duties ( like prayer and charitable giving ) to recommended acts that are good but not duties ( like extra prayers )

-there are also laws regarding haram or forbidden actions ( like theft ) as well as discouraged acts that are not forbidden but should be avoided ( like divorce )

-the Hadith tells Muslims about the words and actions of the Prophet Muhammad, who is a role model to Muslims, therefore it offers guidance on how to be good

-religious leaders have a lot of knowledge about religious teachings and are up-to-date with modern moral issues ( the Qur'an says nothing about abortion or smoking for example ), so people may go to a religious leader for advice

-the Qur'an says 'be a community that calls for what is good, urges what is right, and forbids what is wrong: those who do this are the successful ones'

attitudes to relative and absolute morality - Christians

-Christians who believe in absolute morality, view good moral behaviour as taking actions that obey the rules

-the Catholic Church follows an ethical theory known as Natural Law, established by St Thomas Aquinas, which is an absolutist approach that establishes rules according to primary precepts that are always wrong to break

-Christians who believe in relative morality think it is important to make moral judgements based on the situation, and although they may still value rules, these are considered to be advisory rather than binding, which means that if a situation arises where the rule is not helpful or fair, it can and should be broken

-the Church of England teaching on remarriage after divorce is relativist because they look at the individual situation and allow some remarriages in a church, but forbid others depending on the circumstances and people involved

attitudes to relative and absolute morality - Muslims

-Islamic ethics are absolutist, since the law of Allah is unchanging and Shariah Law is based on his will, not on the will of society

-some areas of Shariah are fixed, such as some punishments or religious rituals, but the schools of law work to try to understand the law of Allah, so they continue to develop Shariah to answer new issues in modern life

-Shariah Law is based primarily on instructions from the Qur'an however, the Sunnah ( examples, practices and teachings of Muhammad ), hadiths and, where necessary, the reasoning of Islamic scholars have been used as well

-some Muslims argue that Islam has forgotten its roots and needs to be reformed, and these modernisers tend to have been educated or raised in Western countries like the UK and are in the minority

-they may try to interpret the Qur'an in a way that is compatible with modern science, or they may reject other Islamic sources of authority

-other Muslims argue that believers should take the authority of the hadiths and the Sunnah more seriously, and these fundamentalists argue that the best way to protect and organise society is through careful obedience to the law

-few Muslims take a relativist approach to ethics because they believe the Qur'an is the word of Allah and can therefore be trusted to give accurate teaching on morality

attitudes to conscience - Christians

-most Christians argue that people should use their conscience when making moral decisions and that it is wrong to disobey it

-St Thomas Aquinas viewed conscience as using reason to make moral decisions, which means that when someone is trying to work out the rules about right and wrong behaviour, they use their conscience to make a rational decision and come up with the correct rules

-Cardinal John Henry Newman saw conscience as the voice of God, which suggests that someone senses what God wants of them as they deliberate, and they can follow their conscience because God will help them to know what the right behaviour is

attitudes to conscience - Muslims

-the conscience is a guide for Muslims

-Islam teaches that all Muslims should listen to their conscience because it is a gift from Allah that allows a believer to know the difference between right and wrong

-the Qur'an and Shariah Law can usually instruct Muslims about how they should behave, but when there is a moral issue that has no guidance from these sources, the conscience is the best guide

-Islam teaches that the conscience can be wrong when a person has turned away from Allah and been made numb through being too focused on worldly things

-however, a faithful Muslim who does everything in their power to understand Allah's will can find peace in their conscience, which will tell them what is halal and cause them to feel bad if they do something haram

attitudes to virtues and sin - Christians

-Aquinas spoke of moral rules that people must obey, but he was also strongly influenced by the ancient Greek scholar Aristotle, who was interested in virtue

-Aquinas incorporated Aristotle's teaching into his Natural Law, so it is now part of Catholic teaching

-virtues are personal qualities or characteristics people should show, rather than specific rules they should follow

-St Paul gives three virtues: faith, hope and love

-a good moral person is one who shows these personal qualities when they go about their lives

-Aquinas added four more that the Catholic Church also accepts: prudence ( wisdom ), fortitude ( courage ), temperance ( moderation ) and justice ( fairness )

-in Christianity, a sin is a deliberate behaviour that breaks a religious law, and it is an action against God

-the Catholic Church lists seven 'deadly' sins ( lust, gluttony, greed, sloth, wrath, envy and pride ), which are bad personal qualities or dispositions that lead people to act against God's law

-for example, if a person is greedy, they may commit a sin by hoarding money for themselves

attitudes to free will and doing the will of Allah - Muslims

-Islam teaches that Allah has given people the gift of free will so they can choose between right and wrong

-when a person freely chooses to submit to the will of Allah, they are living in the best possible way

-Muslims have obligations or duties that are expected of them, such as the giving of zakah or performance of salah, but these acts are to be performed because a person freely decides to submit to Allah, not because they have been forced to

-Muslims believe Allah is omniscient, and that he knows what is inside the heart of every person and knows in advance the choices they will make therefore, he can punish or reward for good or bad intentions as well as good or bad actions

attitudes to the causes of crime - Christians

-Christianity teaches that everyone is capable of sin as part of their fallen human nature, but the Bible shows how to avoid sin by giving moral and spiritual guidance

-a crime is an offence against society that is punishable by law

-sins are deliberate violations against God

-some sins may also be crimes, but not all of them

-it may be a sin to have an abortion or to commit adultery, but neither of these are crimes in the UK

-Christianity recognises that there are complex reasons why people commit crime, which include poverty, poor education or upbringing, peer pressure, drug addiction, mental illness and abuse

-Christians recognise that law is an important part of society and St Paul teaches that it should be obeyed: 'Let every person be subject to the governing authorities; for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God.'

attitudes to the causes of crime - Muslims

-there is an understanding in Islam that the causes of crime are complex, but the Muslim way of life aims to reduce or remove these causes wherever possible

-these include poverty ( the poor should be provided for through zakah, chums and sadaqah ), poor metal health ( those with some forms of mental illness are exempt from punishment and are not obligated to fulfil the five pillars of Islam ), poor upbringing ( parents have a duty to educate their children in the faith and morality, which should prevent criminal behaviour ) and addiction ( drinking and drug use are haram in Islam so they should not be able to cause criminal behaviour )

-teaching and preaching from Islamic authorities regularly warn against criminal activity, which is seen as an offence against Allah: 'God commands justice, doing good, and generosity towards relatives and He forbids what is shameful, blameworthy, and oppressive. He teaches you, so that you may take heed.'

attitudes to the aims of punishment - Christians

-Christian teaching acknowledges that the law has a responsibility to punish criminals for their crimes

-Christianity may accept several reasons for punishment:

-justice = most Christians agree that a person must make amends for what they have done to help restore equality and balance to society

-retribution = Christian teaching rejects punishing someone to pay them back for their crime so they suffer as much as their victims as this aim lacks mercy for the criminal

-deterrence = Christians may worry that punishing one person as an example to others conflicts with biblical teachings about the sanctity of life

-reformation = many Christians agree that it is merciful, through education and counselling, to aim to safely release a person back into society

-there are other aims of punishment too, e.g. sometimes people need to be punished to protect other members of society, or the punishment proves the authority of the law and reminds people of the reasons for it ( to keep order in society )

attitudes to the aims of punishment - Muslims

-Islam sees punishment as having a range of aims:

-justice = punishments must be fair and they must protect the ummah from harm, the Qur'an teaches that punishment should be in proportion to the crime that was committed, and that where the punishment is severe there must be enough evidence to remove any doubt surrounding the accusation: 'let harm be requited by an equal harm'

-retribution = qisas is retaliation in proportion to the crime that was committed, the intention is not revenge, but a fair consequence to restore balance, some Islamic punishments can be chosen by the victims or their families, diyah is another form of retribution under Shariah Law, it means the victim or their relative can accept financial payment instead, to compensate them for the harm that was caused

-deterrence = punishment is supposed to protect the ummah from crime so that society can be peaceful and orderly, punishment is often administered publicly in Muslim countries so that everyone can see the consequences and be put off from performing the same actions

-reformation = Islam does not favour reformation as a replacement for punishment but hopes that it will happen as a consequence of punishment since the punishment itself is intended to prevent the same crime from being committed again, the community then has a duty to help the criminal to become a better member of society

attitudes to the treatment of criminals - Christians

-Christians differ in their views on how criminals should be treated

-those who see punishment as retribution or a deterrent may want criminals to experience suffering for their crimes, and they may disagree with criminals receiving 'privileges' in prison, such as access to televisions or computers

-those who see punishment as rehabilitation believe it is vital for criminals to receive whatever they need to equip them for a crime-free life, and they argue that God requires Christians to care for criminals, who are more likely to respond positively if they are treated fairly: 'They also will answer, 'Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty or a stranger or needing clothes or ill or in prison, and did not help you?" He will reply, "Truly I tell you, whatever you did not do for one of the least of these, you did not do for me." Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life."'

-Christians believe that prisoners should be treated with compassion because, in the Parable of the Sheep and Goats, Jesus said that those who visit prisoners ( help them to reform ) will go to heaven

attitudes to the treatment of criminals - Muslims

-some Islamic scholars argue against imprisonment as it is a financial burden on the ummah, and in Muslim countries prisons are usually for those awaiting trial or punishment

-Islam teaches that human life is sacred and therefore prisoners should be treated fairly and humanely, no matter what crime they committed, which means that they have the right to a fair trial, food and drink, medical attention and good hygiene, even if corporal punishment is received

the work of prison reformers and prison chaplains - Christians

-Christianity has inspired many to work for prison reform because, while imprisonment is one way to ensure justice and protect society, it does not always support rehabilitation

-prison reformers campaign to improve conditions in prisons so they are more humane and promote rehabilitation

-in the 19th century, Elizabeth Fry was a Quaker prison reformer who thought that locking people away was not consistent with Christian mercy, so she visited prisons in the UK, held Bible readings and taught women skills they could use to earn money on their release

-she also sent care packages of clothes, Bibles, equipment and food to prisons, and she campaigned against the transportation of prisoners to Australia and against capital punishment

-a prison chaplain's role is to provide pastoral care for inmates, which means they offer counselling and spiritual or emotional help to prisoners and support their rehabilitation

-Christian chaplains may offer Bible studies, religious services and contact with those outside of prison to reduce their isolation and the chance of reoffending

-chaplains often work alongside parole officers, helping prisoners to get ready to go back into the community

the work of prison reformers and prison chaplains - Muslims

-some Muslim organisations run projects to ensure fair treatment for Muslim prisoners, and they provide prayer mats, literature and halal food for prisoners who could not otherwise practise their faith

-some work to ensure justice for Muslim prisoners who may be treated more harshly by the prison system

-in the UK, there are many Muslim prison chaplains who provide counselling and spiritual guidance for prisoners

-chaplains also support prisoners when they are released so they do not reoffend

attitudes to the death penalty - Christians

-the UK abolished the death penalty in 1969, however, it is still legal in many countries, 30 of which have used it within the last 10 years to deter crime and punish the most serious criminal behaviour

-modern methods usually aim to make the process quick and painless, with the most common being a lethal injection

-not all Christians agree with the use of capital punishment

-some argue that it was an accepted, or even commanded, punishment in the Bible for crimes such as blasphemy or murder

-they may argue that it promotes public order and the cost to society is less than life imprisonment

-many others argue that it violates the sanctity of human life and provides no opportunity for repentance

-the Catholic Church previously took a Conservative view as Aquinas saw punishment as having two aims: protecting society and reforming the sinner, so he was in favour of it

-in 1997, Pope John Paul II confirmed this as the Church's position, but only in extremely rare cases if there was no other way to protect society

-however, in 2018 Pope Francis declared the death penalty 'inadmissible' and something that should be abolished worldwide

-Jesus appeared to revise the Old Testament command that required revenge when a person committed a crime ( 'eye for eye, and tooth for tooth' ) and instead, he taught that Christians should show compassion ( 'love your neighbour' )

-Quakers have argued for an end to the death penalty as far back as 1818 because they believe that punishment should only be used to reform, to bring healing and change for the criminal, and capital punishment does not enable this

-many argue that it is simply state-sanctioned murder: 'you shall not murder'

attitudes to the death penalty - Muslims

-most Muslim countries use the death penalty as the ultimate punishment for the most severe crimes

-the death penalty is prescribed by the Qur'an and the hadiths for two types of crime: murder and spreading mischief ( crimes like apostasy, adultery, rape, homosexuality, piracy and terrorism )

-the death penalty is supposed to act as a deterrent and executions are often held in public as an example to others

-strict laws are in place to ensure that no one is unjustly executed ( 'do not take life, except for just cause' ), for example, there must be four eyewitnesses who can confirm that adultery has taken place

-not all Muslims agree that the death penalty is appropriate for crimes such as apostasy because faith is a matter for the individual and Allah, and cannot be forced

-in practice, people are often declared insane for deterring Islam and are therefore not executed

-some Muslims, especially those raised in the West, argue that the death penalty was appropriate to society when the Qur'an was revealed, but is not applicable today

-they may argue that the death penalty is inhumane and adds nothing good to society, or that it is possible accused people may be executed by mistake, and in these cases, if more evidence comes to light, that person can never be pardoned in a meaningful way

-other Muslims argue that it is against the law of Allah to fail to punish a guilty criminal in the way that Shariah Law prescribes

attitudes to forgiveness - Christians

-forgiveness is when someone chooses to change the way they view another person who has caused them harm

-Christian teaching says no one is completely innocent as everyone sins, but Christians believe that God forgives everyone who repents of the things they have done wrong: 'for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God'

-just as God forgives those who are sorry, scripture requires believers to also forgive each other when they sin or make mistakes: 'forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors' ( from the Lord's Prayer ), 'forgive seventy-seven times' ( Jesus tells his followers there is no maximum number of times a person should be forgiven )

-Christians believe that God's forgiveness is unlimited and they should try to follow his example: 'for if you forgive other people when they sin against you, your heavenly Father will also forgive you'

-in the gospels, Jesus repeatedly demonstrates an ability to forgive sins, and even on the cross, he prayed to God: 'Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing'

-forgiveness plays an important part in Christian worship, and for many Christians, God's forgiveness is celebrated in services of Baptism, which is performed as a sign of God's promise that their sins are forgiven: 'repent and be baptised, everyone one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins'

-confession is also important in Christian worship and a Christian may confess their sins to God in private prayer or during a church service and ask God for his forgiveness

-for Catholics, reconciliation is a sacrament through which people can be forgiven by God for their sins, and they are expected to visit the confession box regularly to have their confessions heard by the priest and are asked to perform acts of penance

attitudes to forgiveness - Muslims

-Muslims are reminded throughout the Qur'an that Allah is merciful and compassionate, and he gave them the responsibility to be khalifas of the world, but as they are imperfect humans they will sometimes fail in this duty: 'whatever misfortune befalls you, it is because of what your hands have done - God forgives much'

-Allah can forgive people without punishing them as he is merciful, but when a person does something wrong out of malice, then they can expect Allah's punishment

-however, Allah recognises that people are weak and so there is no limit to Allah's capacity for forgiveness

-on the second day of Hajj, all pilgrims must stand in front of the hill of Arafat ( where Adam confessed his sins and was forgiven by Allah ) and confess their sins to Allah, which is an opportunity for Muslims to seek forgiveness from Allah

-Islam teaches that if a Muslim has harmed or wronged another person, they must ask forgiveness from that person before they seek forgiveness from Allah as a sin against another person is also a sin against Allah: 'believers, even among your spouses and your children you have some enemies - beware of them - but if you overlook their offences, forgive them, pardon them, then God is all forgiving, all merciful'

-forgiveness is thought to be greater than revenge, and those who forgive are promised a reward in the afterlife

-when a person asks for forgiveness, they should intend to never commit the sin or crime again, and if they do unwittingly repeat their action, Muslims should ideally forgive them again, following the example of Allah ( whose forgiveness is unlimited )

-Muslims are expected to copy the example of Muhammad, who forgave and helped care for a sick, old woman until she was well, despite her prior wrongdoings

attitudes to evil and suffering - Christians

-Christianity teaches that humans have free will, which they often use to make evil choices ( for example, war and neglect are evils that humans perform, not God ) and as a result, some argue that evil is a fair punishment that humans deserve, or that suffering can teach someone how to be a better person

-others disagree and point out that humans cannot be held responsible for natural evils, good and innocent people suffer as well as bad people, when babies die or animals suffer, they cannot learn from it, and the amount of evil in the world is too great

-in one account regarding the origin of evil, Adam and Eve are the originators of evil, not God, and humans began perfect but used their free will to become damaged and imperfect

-their sin brought disorder into the world and removed their innocence, leaving them with a tendency to sin that has been passed to all of their descendants, and therefore evil exists as a result of Original Sin because now all humanity is infected with a natural inclination to do evil things

-another account begins with Irenaeus, who argued that God created the ability for evil to exist in the world and he is partially responsible for its existence

-he understood the quote in Genesis 'God created mankind in his own image' to mean that God made humans incomplete and the process of being like God is a gradual one, and so humans began imperfect and then used their free will to make themselves into God's perfect image and likeness

-for humans to be able to make meaningful free choices to become more like God, it must be possible to choose evil, and as people make choices, they make their souls

-John Hick agreed with Irenaeus and claimed that the only way people can be free and responsible for their actions is if there are real consequences to them, which means that evil must be a possibility

attitudes to evil and suffering - Muslims

-the Qur'an says that Allah made the first man, Adam, from dust, appointed him as a khalifah and gave him knowledge of the created world, the ability to reason and free will

-Allah tested Adam in front of all the angels and Adam was able to answer all of his questions, and then when Allah 'told the angels, "bow down before Adam," they all bowed. But not Ibis, who refused and was arrogant: he was disobedient.'

-Iblis was to be punished but begged Allah to postpone his punishment, so Allah allowed him to remain to tempt humans

-Iblis caused Adam and Hawwa's ( Eve's ) sin in Jannah and he tempts humans today ( 'we shall certainly test you' ), so Muslims need to show self-control to resist him, which means that the origin of evil is a mixture of the work of powerful evil beings and of human weakness, and it is not the fault of Allah

-Islam teaches that good can come from suffering as it enables humans to prepare for the next life, e.g. someone living a life of challenge or struggle has the chance to develop their patience and trust in Allah's mercy and justice, and someone living a life of wealth and advantage has the chance to help those less fortunate

-those who choose not to live according to the will of Allah can expect to be punished on the Day of Judgement, whereas a good Muslim will follow the Qur'an, the hadiths and Shariah Law when making moral choices

-Islam teaches that free will must exist because otherwise humans could never show real faith in Allah and all of their actions would be meaningless, however, Allah is the one who has complete control and knowledge over the universe, so predestination must be in place, governing all events including human decisions

-the Sunni tradition emphasises Al-Qadr ( predestination )

-the Shi'a tradition emphasises the Adalat ( justice ) of Allah