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What are the three stages of cell signaling?
signaling reception, transduction, and response
biofilm
an aggregation of bacterial cells adhered to a surface
quorum sensing
A concentration of signaling molecules allows bacteria to sense local population density
the regulation of gene expression in response to fluctuations in cell-population density
signal transduction pathway
The binding of a mating factor at the cell surface initiates a series of steps
How cells communicate with each other in local signaling?
Animal cells communicate by direct contact
animal and plant cells has cell junctions that connects cytoplasm of adjacent cells
paracrine signaling
animal cells communicate using secreted messenger molecules that travel only short distances
Autocrine signaling
the cell signals itself
Synaptic signaling
occurs in the animal nervous system when a neurotransmitter is released in response to an electric signal
hormones
In long-distance signaling, plants and animals use molecules
hormonal (or endocrine) signaling
in animals specialized cells release hormones, which travel to target cells via the circulatory system
ligand
The binding between a signal molecule (ligand) and receptor is highly specific
Reception
the target cell detects a signaling molecule that binds to a receptor protein on the cell surface
G protein-coupled receptors
are cell-surface transmembrane receptors that work with the help of a G protein extremely widespread and diverse in their functions
G protein
bind the energy-rich G T P and are all very similar in structure
receptor tyrosine kinases
membrane receptors that catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups from A T P to another protein
ligand-gated ion channel
receptor acts as a gate that opens and closes when the receptor changes shape
how the G protein signal transduction pathway works
In signal transduction, first the GPCR gets activated by changing its conformation which resulted from binding of agonist/ligands to the extracellular region of GPCR. This activated GPCR further activate the inactive G protein to active G protein complex by dissociating the Gα from Gβγ.
Intracellular Receptors
found in the cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells
Transduction
Cascades of molecular interactions transmit signals from receptors to relay molecules in the cell
Protein kinases
transfer phosphates from A T P to protein, a process called phosphorylation
phosphorylation cascade
Many relay molecules in signal transduction pathways are protein kinases
chain reaction of enzymes creating thousands of protiens
Protein phosphatases
rapidly remove the phosphates from proteins, a process called dephosphorylation
second messenger
small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions that spread throughout a cell by diffusion
Cyclic A M P (c A M P)
a small molecule produced from A T P, is one of the most widely used second messengers
inositol triphosphate
Pathways leading to the release of calcium
Adenylyl cyclase
an enzyme in the plasma membrane, converts A T P to c A M P in response to an extracellular signal
diacylglycerol
Pathways leading to the release of calcium as additional second messengers
What is the difference between a nuclear response and a cytoplasmic response?
A nuclear response involves the alteration of gene expression, while a cytoplasmic response involves the activation of an enzyme or the opening of an ion channel.
Scaffolding proteins
large relay proteins to which several other relay proteins are attached
increase the signal transduction efficiency by grouping together different proteins involved in the same pathway
Inactivation
If the concentration of external signaling molecules falls, fewer receptors will be bound
• Unbound receptors revert to an inactive state
Apoptosis
prevents enzymes from leaking out of a dying cell and damaging neighboring cells
can be triggered by signals from outside the cell or inside
may be involved in some diseases (for example, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s)
caspases
The main proteases of apoptosis …a family of endoproteases that provide critical links in cell regulatory networks controlling inflammation and cell death.
four aspects of signal regulation:
1. Amplification of the signal (and thus the response)
2. Specificity of the response
Overall efficiency of response, enhanced by scaffolding proteins
Termination of the signal
Scaffolding proteins
are large relay proteins to \n which several other relay proteins are attached
can increase the signal \n transduction efficiency by grouping together \n different proteins involved in the same pathway
protease
an enzyme which breaks down proteins and peptides.
nuclease
enzymes that degrade nucleic acids, either DNA or RNA. DNases degrade DNA and RNases degrade RNA.