All Unit Vocabulary

memory

memory

persistence of learning over time thru encoding, storage, and retrieval of info (318)

encoding

process/get info into our brain (319)

storage

retains info over time (319)

retrieval

process of getting info out of storage (319)

parallel processing

simultaneously processing many situational/environmental aspects (319)

connectionism

views memories as products of interconnected neural networks (319)

sensory memory

immediate/brief recording of sensory info in memory system (319)

short-term memory

activated memory that holds few items briefly, before info is stored/forgotten (319)

long-term memory

relatively permanent storehouse of memory system (319)

working memory

focuses on conscious, active processing of auditory + visual-spatial info to link w info from long-term memory (319-320)

explicit memory (declarative memory)

memory of facts/experiences/specific info that one consciously recalls (320)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (focusing) (320)

implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

unconscious and automatic info we don’t store purposely (verywellmind.com / news-medical.net)

automatic processing

happens w/o awareness ; skips encoding and goes directly to storage (320)

iconic memory (sight)

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli (322)

echoic memory (hearing)

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli (322)

short-term memory decay

unless rehearsed, verbal info may quickly be forgotten (322)

chunking

organizing items automatically into familiar, manageable units to recall it more easily (323)

mnemonics

memory aid technique that uses vivid imagery (323)

hierarchies

process info into chunks → organize into categories/concepts → divide into narrower concepts/facts (324)

spacing effect

distribute study/practice to achieve better long-term retention than cramming (324)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than rereading info (324)

shallow processing

encoding on basic lvl based on structure of words (324)

deep processing

encoding based on meaning of words (325)

self-reference effect

material is more easily remembered if it’s personally meaningful

brain networks

network that processes + stores explicit memories for facts (330)

hippocampus

neural center located in limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage (330)

brain cortex

brain replays day’s experiences → transfer to cortex for long-term storage (330-331)

cerebellum

forms + stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia

facilitate formation of procedural memory for skills; controls motor movement (331)

infantile amnesia

can’t really remember learning basic skills as child, bc hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature (331-332)

amygdala

emotion-related memory formulation (332)

trauma

significantly stressful event that forms unforgettable memory; recollection of event may intrude repeatedly (332-333)

flashbulb memory

clear memory of emotionally significant moment/event (332)

long-term potentiation

believed to be neural basis for learning + memory: increase efficiency of potential neuron firing / increase cell’s firing potential after brief stimulation (333)

recall

person must retrieve info learned earlier (334)

recognition

(recognize) person only needs to identify items previously learned (334)

relearning

learning sth more quickly when you are learning it again at a later/second time (334)

priming

often unconscious activation of particular associations in memory (336)

context-dependent memory

more likely to rmb sth if you’re in the same location where info was introduced to u (336)

state-dependent memory

more likely to rmb sth if you’re in the same state as when info was introduced to u/if you’re in the same state as when u did same action (336)

mood-congruent memory OR mood congruent/congruency

tendency to recall experiences that match one’s current mood (337)

serial position effect

tendency to recall the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items in a list the best after trying to memorize it in order (337-338)

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories (still able to recall past) (342)

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve past memories (342)

retrieval cues

something that will make u remember/retrieve info from storage

proactive interference

disruptive effect on old/prior learning on recall of new info AKA old info messing w learning of new info (345)

retroactive interference

disruptive effects of new learning on recall of old info AKA newer info messing w recalling of old info (345)

positive transfer

learning of new task based on what has been learned during previous one (nap.edu)

repression

defensive mechanism that gets rid of anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, memories from consciousness (346)

misinformation effect

ppl form wrong memories by incorporating wrong info after event repeatedly imagining/rehearsing sth that never happened OR incorporating misleading info into one’s memory of event (354, 347)

source amnesia/misattribution

reassembling memory during retrieval + attributing it to wrong source about sth u experienced, heard/read about, or imagined (354,349)

deja vu

eerie sense that '“i’ve experienced this b4” that cues from current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of earlier familiar experience

cognition

mental activities associated w thinking, knowing, remembering, communicating (356)

concepts

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, people (356)

prototype

mental image/example of category (356)

creativity

ability to produce novel + valuable ideas (357)

convergent thinking

narrows available solutions to determine single best solution (357)

divergent thinking

expand number of possible solutions (357)

algorithms

methodical, logical procedure that guarantees a problem’s solution (361)

heuristic

simple thinking strategy that allows efficient judgment + problem solving (faster, but more prone to errors than algorithms) (361)

insight

sudden realization of problem’s solution (361)

confirmation bias

tendency to search for info that supports our ideas and ignore any contradicting evidence (362)

fixation

inability to see situation/problem from a new/diff point of view (363)

functional fixedness

only using certain object for its intended use

mental set

approaching problem in one particular way bc it was successful in the past (363)

intuition

effortless, immediate, automatic feeling/thought instead of using systematic reasoning (363)

representativeness heuristic/bias

judging likelihood of things from bias of how well they represent/match our prototypes (364)

availability heuristic/bias

estimating likelihood of events based on availability in memory AKA the first thing that comes to mind (364)

overconfidence

tendency to be more confident that correct; overestimate accuracy of beliefs + judgments (365)

belief perseverance

clinging to initial ideas even after they have been discredited/proven wrong (367)

framing

the way an issue is posed/presented that can affect decisions and judgments (368)

language

spoken, written, signed words; combining them to communicate meaning (372)

phonemes

smallest distinctive sound unit (373)

morphemes

smallest unit that carries meaning (373)

grammar

system of rules deriving meaning from sounds (semantics) and ordering words into sentences (syntax) (373)

receptive language

ability to understand what is said to you (374)

productive language

ability to produce words (374)

babbling stage

infant spontaneously utters various sounds unrelated to any language (374)

one-word stage

child conveys meaning through single words, recognizing words’ meanings (375)

two-word stage

child speaks in mostly 2 word statements (375)

telegraphic speech

child speaks using telegrams: mostly verbs + nouns (375)

universal grammar

all human langs have nouns, verbs, adjs (375)

aphasia

impairment of lang caused by dmg in brain/cortical areas (377)

Broca’s area

controls lang expression; person struggles to speak words but still able to comprehend speech (377)

Wernicke’s area

controls lang reception; person can only speak meaningless words/nonsense (377)

linguistic determination

Whorf’s hypothesis that lang determines the way we think (379)

outcome simulation

visualizing outcome of situation (381)

process simulation

visualizing one’s self going thru process (381)