AP Psych Unit 5 (L)

stressor

stimulus capable of generating stress

stress reaction

how a particular subject (e.g., a person) responds to the stressor

stress

the process by which we appraise (i.e., evaluate) and respond to environmental threats; the process by which a particular subject relates to stress

eustress (motivating)

positive stress that can motivate and enhance performance; it often occurs when one perceives a challenge as manageable or exciting (e.g., preparing for a big presentation, starting a new job, competing in a sports event, etc.)

distress (debilitating)

negative stress that can overwhelm or harm an individual; it arises when one perceives a situation as threatening or unmanageable (e.g., facing financial difficulties, dealing with a conflict, experiencing chronic illness, etc.)

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

infants in environments devoid of love and attention, including those with non-present or abusive caretakers, often grow to be frightened, withdrawn, and impaired in their language ability; adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are sources of stress that can affect a person throughout their entire lifespan

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine; primary focus is to understand how health and illness are influenced by emotions, stress, personality, and lifestyle

hypertension

high blood pressure

immune (system) suppression

the reduction in the effectiveness of the body's immune response, often due to stress, illness, or medications, which can make an individual more vulnerable to infections and diseases; this suppression can occur through various mechanisms, including the release of stress hormones like cortisol

catastrophes

unpredictable events with widespread consequences (e.g., earthquakes, floods, wildfires, storms)

fight-flight-freeze response

an automatic physiological and psychological reaction to a perceived threat or danger, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system as part of the body's survival mechanism; it prepares the body to either confront the threat (fight), escape it (flight), or become immobile (freeze)

cortisol

a hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress, playing a key role in regulating metabolism, immune function, and the body's "fight or flight" response; prolonged elevated levels of cortisol can lead to negative effects on health, including immune system suppression and increased risk of chronic conditions

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's three-stage process (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion) that describes our biological reaction to sustained and unrelenting stress

Phase 1 of GAS (alarm reaction)

activated sympathetic nervous system, higher heart rate, increased blood flow to skeletal muscles; as a result, the animal/person becomes ready to move quickly

Phase 2 of GAS (resistance)

high body temperature, blood pressure, and respiration; adrenal glands release hormones into bloodstream (i.e., the fight-flight-freeze response); after a while, body's energy resources start to become depleted

Phase 3 of GAS (exhaustion)

the body's energy resources depleted, the individual becomes more vulnerable to illness (and in some cases, collapse and death)

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly — by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor (e.g., proactively studying for a test, effectively managing time, actively solving emotional conflicts in relationships, etc.)

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction (e.g., relation techniques such as deep breathing, meditation, taking medication that reduces stress responses, seeking social support, simply avoiding the cause of the emotional problem, etc.)

tend-and-befriend response (a kind of emotion-focused coping) (Lim & DeSteno, 2016; Taylor, 2006; Taylor et al., 2000)

when experiencing stress, people (especially women) often offer social support to others (tend) and seek support from others (befriend)

behavioral medicine

a form of medicine that seeks to understand how stress and healthy/unhealthy behaviors affect health and likelihood of illness

psychoneuroimmunology (a branch of health psychology)

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health (i.e., mind-body interactions)

lymphocytes

a type of white blood cell involved in the body's immune response, with key roles in recognizing and attacking foreign invaders like viruses and bacteria; they include T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells, each with specific functions in defending the body against pathogens

coronary heart disease

the gradual blocking of blood vessels that lead into the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

catharsis

the process of releasing and providing relief from strong or repressed emotions, often through expression or activity, such as crying,talking about one's feelings, yelling, or engaging in aggressive behavior; historically, some psychologists have believed that catharsis promotes emotional cleansing and reduces stress or tension, but there is some modern research that contradicts this

positive psychology

a coping device for stress; the release of pent-up emotions through exercise or other means

subjective well-being (SWB)

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life (sometimes operationalized as a high ratio of positive to negative feelings)

signature strengths (i.e., character strengths) and virtues (i.e., Seligman's Values in Action classification system)

a classification system to identify positive traits; organized 24 positive traits into categories of wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence

wisdom (according to the VIA classification system)

creativity, curiosity, judgment, love of learning, and perspective

courage (according to the VIA classification system)

bravery, honesty, perseverance, and zest

humanity (according to the VIA classification system)

kindness, love, and social intelligence

justice (according to the VIA classification system)

fairness, leadership, and teamwork

temperance (according to the VIA classification system)

forgiveness, humility, prudence, and self-regulation

transcendance (according to the VIA classification system)

appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, and spirituality

adaptation-level phenomenon

individuals' tendency to form judgments (of visual, auditory or concept-level stimuli) relative to a neutral level defined by one's prior experience; when humans reach a new level/plateau of a stimulus, they may experience an initial wave of pleasure/despair, but after a while, they adjust to the "new normal", requiring further stimulus changes to alter individuals' moods even further (i.e., feel gratification, feel despair, etc.) (e.g., Ex: feeling empty even after becoming wealthy, not feeling accomplished even after getting into dream university, etc.)

relative deprivation

the impression that one is fares worse (i.e., has worse living circumstances) compared to those with whom one contrasts oneself

gratitude

an appreciative emotion that people often experience when they benefit from other's actions or recognize their own good fortune (i.e., desirable life outcomes)

the feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's propensity to help others when experiencing a positive mood

the broaden-and-build theory

proposes that positive emotions broaden our awareness, which over time helps us build novel and meaningful skills and resilience that improve well-being

resilience

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma

posttraumatic growth

positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises

psychological disorder

a disturbance in people's thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that causes distress or suffering and impairs their daily lives

maladaptive behavior

actions or patterns of behavior that negatively affect an individual's ability to function effectively in daily life, often contributing to distress or impairment in social, academic, or occupational settings; these behaviors may be associated with mental health disorders and can hinder personal well-being

deinstitutionalization

the process of reducing or eliminating long-term psychiatric hospitalizations by transferring patients to community-based care (this was patially accomplished by the use of psychotropic medications); this shift, which began in the mid-20th century, aimed to provide more humane and effective treatment, though it also led to challenges in managing care and resources for individuals with severe mental health disorders (e.g., more patients without access to psychotropic medications becoming homeless)

the medical model of psychological disorders

views psychological disorders as diseases; believes that psychological disorders have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in certain cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital

the diathesis-stress model of psychological disorders (aka the vulnerability-stress model)

suggests that psychological disorders arise from the interaction of an underlying vulnerability (diathesis) (i.e., a genetic predisposition) and external stressors (stress)

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

the DSM-5-TR (2022)

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

diagnostic criteria

a set of signs, symptoms, and tests developed for use in routine clinical care to guide the care of individual patients

psychodynamic perspective on psychological disorders

disorders result from unresolved childhood conflicts and unconscious thoughts

humanistic perspective on psychological disorders

disorders result from lack of social support and the inability to fulfill one's potential

behavioral perspective on psychological disorders

disorders result from maladaptive learned associations

cognitive perspective on psychological disorders

disorders result from maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or emotions

biological perspective on psychological disorders

disorders result from genetic or physiological predispositions

evolutionary perspective on psychological disorders

disorders result from maladaptive forms of behaviors than enabled human survival

sociocultural perspective on psychological disorders

disorders result from problematic social and cultural contexts

the immigrant paradox

immigrants who have recently immigrated are less at risk for mental disorders (e.g., new Mexican-Americans) than Mexican-Americans born in the United States

anxiety disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety (i.e., dysfunctional anxiety-reducing behaviors)

social anxiety disorder (formerly called social phobia)

intense fear and avoidance of social situations (particularly those situations that may cause embarrassment)

taijin kyofusho (TKS) (experienced by mainly people in Japan)

an anxiety disorder marked by fear that others are judging their bodies as undesirable, offensive or unpleasing

"coping" behaviors

the strategies and actions individuals use to manage stress, adversity, or emotional discomfort; these can be adaptive (e.g., problem-solving, seeking support) or maladaptive (e.g., avoidance, substance use), influencing overall mental health and well-being

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense (typically a period of 6 months or more), apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread (these can be simultaneous biological, cognitive and emotional experiences); during this attack a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, trembling, dizziness or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack

ataque de nervios (experienced mainly by people in the Caribbean)

an anxiety disorder marked by trembling, instances of crying, feeling heat rise from the chest to the head, and possibly fainting or seizures

specific phobia

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation

agoraphobia

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide, open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic (e.g., fear of being in a place hard to escape)

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both

hoarding disorder

cluttering one's space with acquired possessions one can't bear to discard

body dysmorphic disorder (not tested)

obsession with perceived body defects

trichotillomania (not tested)

obsessive hair-pulling

excoriation disorder (not tested)

obsessive skin-picking

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance (excessive attention to possible threats), social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

acute stress disorder (not tested)

very similar to PTSD, but starts immediately after the trauma and lasts from 3 days to one month

learned helplessness

the feeling of futility and passive acceptance that results from inability to avoid repeated aversive events; this can lead to a decreased motivation to act, even when opportunities for change are present

major depressive disorder (MDD)

a disorder in which a person experiences (in the absence of drugs or another medical condition) two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure

persistent depressive disorder (also called dysthymia)

a chronic form of depression characterized by a low mood lasting for at least two years, along with other symptoms such as low energy, poor appetite, and feelings of hopelessness; unlike major depressive disorder, the symptoms are less severe but can significantly impact daily functioning and quality of life

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

a subtype of depression that recurs, usually during the winter months in the northern latitudes

bipolar disorder (formerly called manic-depressive disorder)

a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania

bipolar I disorder

the most severe form, in which people experience a euphoric, talkative, highly energetic, and overly ambitious state that lasts a week or longer

bipolar II disorder

a less severe form of bipolar in which people move between depression and a milder hypomania

mania

a hyperactive (little need for sleep), euphoric, extremely optimistic (and potentially overly talkative) state in which dangerously poor judgment is common

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that fit our current good or bad mood

norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter and hormone involved in the body's "fight or flight" response, playing a key role in increasing alertness, arousal, and focus; it is also involved in regulating mood and is linked to disorders such as depression and anxiety

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that regulates mood and emotional stability; imbalances in serotonin levels are associated with mood disorders such as depression and anxiety (N.B.: the connection between low levels of serotonin and greater risk of depression will be what is mainly tested on the AP Psychology Exam)

aerobic exercise

physical activity that involves sustained, rhythmic movement of large muscle groups, such as running, swimming, or cycling, which increases heart rate and improves cardiovascular health; regular aerobic exercise has been shown to reduce stress, improve mood, and enhance overall physical and mental well-being through the release of endorphins, serotonin and norepinephrine

explanatory styles

the habitual ways in which individuals explain the causes of events, particularly in terms of internal vs. external, stable vs. unstable, and global vs. specific factors; these styles can influence how people cope with stress and their vulnerability to mental health issues, such as depression

rumination

the repetitive and passive focus on distressing thoughts or experiences, often leading to prolonged emotional distress; it is linked to an increased risk of developing mood disorders, such as depression and anxiety, by hindering problem-solving and emotional regulation

nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)

the deliberate, self-inflicted harm to the body, such as cutting or burning, without the intent to die; it is often used as a coping mechanism to manage intense emotions or psychological pain, and is commonly associated with mental health conditions like depression or borderline personality disorder

psychotic disorders

a group of disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, and a loss of contact with reality (i.e., psychosis)

schizophrenia

a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking/speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression (i.e., flat affect)

positive symptoms of schizophrenia (inappropriate behaviors are present)

the presence of abnormal behaviors or thoughts that are not typically found in the general population, such as hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, and disorganized or catatonic behavior; these symptoms reflect an excess or distortion of normal functioning

negative symptoms of schizophrenia (appropriate behaviors are absent)

the absence or reduction of normal emotional and behavioral functioning, such as diminished motivation, flat affect, reduced speech output (alogia), and social withdrawal; these symptoms reflect a decrease in the ability to function or engage in everyday activities

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external stimulus

delusion

a false belief, often of persecution ("someone is trying to hurt me") or grandeur ("I am the President of the US"), that may accompany psychotic disorders

flat affect (a negative symptom)

a negative symptom of schizophrenia characterized by a lack of emotional expression, such as reduced facial expressions, monotone speech, and diminished gestures; this emotional blunting can make it difficult for individuals to engage socially or convey feelings effectively

catatonic stupor (a negative symptom)

a physical stupor (i.e., remaining motionless for hours)

catatonic excitement (a positive symptom)

senseless, compulsive actions (e.g., continually rocking or rubbing an arm), restlessness and severe (and potentially dangerous) agitation

chronic schizophrenia (i.e., process schizophrenia)

a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood (as people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten)

acute schizophrenia (i.e., reactive schizophrenia)

a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age; frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event

the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

a hyper-responsive dopamine system (i.e., an excess number of dopamine receptors) may contribute to positive symptoms of schizoprenia such as hallucinations and paranoia

viral infection

a person contracting viruses like influenza, i.e., the flu