God and the Good Life - Comp Check #2

What type of argument structure does Aquinas use in the Five Ways?

He uses inference to the best explanation: starting from observations about the world and identifying God as the best explanation for them.

What is an “efficient cause” according to Aquinas?

Something that directly makes another thing exist or move - like a person kicking a ball, causing it to roll

What is the difference between a necessary being and a contingent being?

• Necessary being: cannot fail to exist; its nonexistence is impossible and it has always existed.

• Contingent being: can fail to exist; its existence depends on something else.

What is Aquinas’s main conclusion in the First Way (Motion)?

Because things in motion must be moved by something else and an infinite regress of movers is impossible, there must be a First Mover, which is God.

Why can’t something move itself in the First Way?

Because something cannot be in actuality and potentiality in the same respect at the same time—so it cannot bring itself from potential motion to actual motion.

What is the key observation that the Second Way (Causation) begins with?

That there is an ordered series of efficient causes in the world—things cause other things.

Why does Aquinas argue there cannot be an infinite regress of efficient causes?

Because without a First Cause, there would be no intermediate or ultimate causes—no effects at all. The whole chain depends on a first starting point.

What does the Third Way (Dependence) argue from?

The existence of contingent beings—things that could fail to exist—requires a Necessary Being who explains why anything exists at all.

Why can’t an infinite regress of “created necessary beings” explain existence in the Third Way?

Because created necessary beings still receive their necessity from something else; only a being whose necessity comes from itself can explain existence.

What observation starts the Fourth Way (Perfection)?

We observe degrees of goodness, truth, and being in things—some are “more” or “less” good or true than others.

How does Aquinas reason from degrees of perfection to the existence of God?

Degrees of qualities require a maximum as the standard of comparison; thus there must be a Perfect Being who is the maximum of goodness, truth, and being—this is God.

What does the Fifth Way (Design) argue?

Natural things that lack intelligence still act toward ends and flourish in predictable ways. Since unintelligent things cannot direct themselves toward an end, there must be an intelligent being directing them—God.

What example does Aquinas use to illustrate unintelligent things acting for ends?

A plant (like a bean sprout) growing toward light even though it cannot reason—suggesting its behavior is ordered by something intelligent.

Do the Five Ways attempt to prove Christianity specifically? Why or why not?

No. They aim to establish the existence of a God, not the Christian God specifically.

What do all Five Ways ultimately claim about God?

That God is the First Mover, First Cause, Necessary Being, Perfect Being, and Intelligent Designer—the ultimate explanation for features of the universe.

What is a “theistic God”?

A being that is all-powerful, all-knowing, all-good, and creator of the universe.

What is “quasi-theism”?

Belief in a being with some, but not all, divine attributes.

Why do Aquinas’s Five Ways often support only quasi-theism?

They show a first mover or designer exists, but not that it has all the divine attributes.

Why doesn’t the design argument prove a theistic God?

The designer could be something like a powerful alien, not necessarily the all-perfect God.

Which argument most strongly supports a full theistic God?

Anselm’s Ontological Argument (if sound), since it argues for a greatest possible being.

What central issue does Ivan challenge in “Rebellion”?

The Problem of Evil - unnecessary suffering makes belief in an all-good, all-powerful God impossible.

Why does Ivan reject Jesus’s command to “love thy neighbor”?

He argues humans cannot truly love others unconditionally because suffering distorts how we see and treat each other.

What key point does Ivan make about suffering and perception?

People interpret suffering differently, so they can’t reliably know when to intervene to help others.

Why does Ivan focus specifically on the suffering of children?

Children are innocent & have no guilt - yet they experience severe suffering, making evil especially unjustifiable.

How does Ivan use the story of Richard to argue against God’s justice?

Richard’s horrific childhood suffering goes unredeemed, but his repentance is celebrated—ignoring the real harm he endured.

What is Ivan criticizing with the story of the father who beats his daughter?

Society’s acceptance of extreme cruelty, showing that evil is tolerated and often rewarded.

What does Ivan argue about harmony purchased through suffering?

No future reward or harmony can justify the suffering of even one innocent child.

What does Ivan mean by “returning his ticket”?

He rejects God’s world—he refuses to accept a system that requires innocent suffering.

According to Ivan, why can’t afterlife rewards solve the Problem of Evil?

They don’t erase past suffering; the harm remains and cannot be undone.

How does Alyosha respond to Ivan’s argument?

He calls Ivan’s rejection “rebellion,” suggesting it is emotionally powerful but not a workable way to live.

What conclusion does Ivan reach about God?

He doesn’t reject God outright—he rejects the world God supposedly created because it is morally unacceptable.

What is the “Suffering Argument” Ivan makes in summary?

(1) Truth shouldn’t require harm, (2) God’s world requires suffering, (3) suffering is often cruel, and (4) rewards don’t fix it—so (C) we cannot accept God’s world.

What dilemma does Ivan present to Alyosha after telling stories of suffering?

Whether child-torturers deserve death—forcing Alyosha to choose between emotion and Christian forgiveness.

What main philosophical conflict does the passage highlight?

The tension between emotion and moral judgment when they disagree.

What does Mike Rea argue using the Book of Job?

God sometimes authorizes protest and lament against Him as reasonable responses to suffering.

How does Primo Levi describe human responses to suffering?

Perfect happiness and perfect unhappiness are impossible; humans naturally search for meaning even in suffering

What does the Sisyphus thought experiment illustrate?

The struggle to find meaning in a world that appears absurd and purposeless.

What core question does Camus ask in “The Myth of Sisyphus?”

How do humans find meaning despite life’s absurdity?

What is existentialism primarily about?

An attitude of questioning meaning, facing anxiety and death, and choosing authentic responsibility.

What does “existence precedes essence” mean for Sartre?

Humans exist first and must create their own purpose—they are not born with one.

Why does Sartre deny the existence of a human nature?

Because without God, there is no designer who defines what humans are for.

What is Sarte’s view on moral decisions?

There are no predetermined moral answers—you must choose and take full responsibility.

What lesson comes from Sartre’s WWII student dilemma?

No rule can decide your moral choice; you define yourself through the choice you make.

What is the “nihilist threat” to existentialism?

If meaning is purely self-made, it may lack real value and feel empty.

What does Sartre mean by “man is condemned to be free”?

We didn’t choose to exist, but we must choose all our actions and cannot escape responsibility.

How does Sartre answer the “DIY morality” objection?

Your choices model behavior for all humanity—so individual choices still have universal weight.

Does existentialism oppose community belonging?

No - Sartre says meaning can be created through relationships, shared history, and collective action.

What is Coates’ main criticism of Kanye’s idea of “free thinking”?

Coates argues Kanye seeks an isolated, consequence-free “white freedom” that ignores the communal ties and historical suffering that shape Black identity.

What does Beauvoir mean by “situated freedom”?

Humans have freedom, but it is shaped and constrained by their social position

What does Aristotle mean when he calls a friend “another self”?

Friends mirror our values and share our lives so deeply that they help us understand ourselves.

What two things does Aristotle use to evaluate friendships?

The friendship’s purpose and how it shapes each person’s character & life.

What is a “happy person” (eudaimōn) for Aristotle?

Someone who has fully developed their character and lived a flourishing, excellent human life.

Why are virtuous friendships rare?

They require time, shared life experiences, trust, and proof of each other’s goodness.

Which type of friendship is the most stable and long-lasting?

Virtuous friendship—because it is rooted in character, not usefulness or pleasure.

Can bad people have virtuous friendships?

No because bad people may form useful or fun friendships, but only good people can form true and virtuous friendships.

What does Aristotle say about living together?

Friendship must be acted out through shared life; distance weakens friendship because friends must “live together” to nurture it.

How do political conditions affect friendship?

Oppressive or corrupt societies (like tyrannies) make real friendship nearly impossible because trust and equality are damaged.

What does research show about how people form friendships in large, diverse groups?

People tend to choose friends who are most like themselves

What concern does Hobbes raise about friendship?

Friendship can create factions, favoritism, and corruption that undermine the common good.

Why do Cistercian monasteries restrict personal friendships?

To prevent exclusive “cliques” and promote universal, egalitarian love among all members.

What is Marx’s central claim about history in The Communist Manifesto?

All history is the history of class struggles—oppressors vs. oppressed.

Who are the two main classes in capitalism according to Marx?

The bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers who sell their labor).

What is the key source of conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat?

Their economic interests oppose each other—capitalists seek profits, workers want fair compensation.

How does Marx describe work under capitalism for the proletariat?

Monotonous, dehumanizing, and reduced to a commodity; workers become “appendages of the machine.”

What does Marx mean by “all that is solid melts into air”?

Capitalism constantly disrupts traditions, relationships, and social structures through rapid change.

How does capitalism “create a world in its own image”?

It spreads globally, reshaping every nation & culture to match capitalist economic demands.

What problem does Marx identify with wages in industrial capitalism?

As work becomes more monotonous, wages tend to decrease while the burden of labor increases.

Why does Marx believe revolution is inevitable?

The tension between exploited workers and profit-seeking capitalists will eventually lead to uprising and systemic change.

What is Weber’s “iron cage”?

A bureaucratic, rationalized capitalist system that traps individuals in routines, efficiency, and economic pressure.

How does Weber link capitalism to Protestantism?

The Protestant Work Ethic encourages disciplined labor as a sign of salvation, fueling capitalist growth and later becoming a trapping “cage.”

What does Marx see as the essence of human beings?

Our natural capacity to create and transform the world through meaningful, self-directed work

What is “alienated labor” according to Marx?

Work done not for creativity or self-expression, but for wages under capitalism—where the worker’s product, purpose, and activity feel foreign to them.

How does Marx think we can reduce alienated labor?

Use capitalism’s labor-saving technology to shorten the workday, giving people more time for unalienated, creative work. (Example: supporting the 10-hour bill and modern 4-day-week ideas.)

Why does Dr. King say he is in Birmingham?

He was invited by local affiliates, has organizational ties there, and most importantly: “I am in Birmingham because injustice is here.”

What does King mean by “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere”?

All communities are interconnected; injustice in one place endangers justice everywhere.

What argument does King reject about being an “outsider”?

He believes no one living in the U.S. can be considered an outsider in the fight for justice.

What are the four steps of a nonviolent campaign?

1) Collection of facts, 2) Negotiation, 3) Self-purification, 4) Direct action.

Why does King defend direct action (sit-ins, marches, protests)?

It creates constructive tension that forces communities to confront issues they have long ignored.

What does King say to the claim that his actions are “untimely”?

The oppressed cannot endlessly wait for a “more convenient season”; progress requires pressure, not patience.

Why is King disappointed with the white moderate?

They prefer order over justice, accept a “negative peace,” and constantly tell Black people to “wait.”

How does King distinguish just and unjust laws?

Just laws uplift human dignity; unjust laws degrade human dignity. Unjust laws conflict with moral and natural law.

Why does King believe segregation laws are unjust?

They give the oppressor a false superiority, the oppressed a false inferiority, and reduce people to objects (“I–It”) instead of equals (“I–Thou”).

What is King’s response to the claim that nonviolent action “causes” violence?

Blaming the victim for violence is wrong—society must punish the robber, not the robbed.

How does King respond to being labeled an “extremist”?

He reframes it: the real question is “What kind of extremist will you be—extremist for hate or love, injustice or justice?”

Why does King criticize the white church?

Many churches remained silent and cautious, supporting the status quo rather than justice. King expected them to be moral leaders, not bystanders.

Why aren’t philosophers better people?

Philosophy can improve or worsen behavior — it’s unpredictable.

How are MLK and Thunberg similar?

Both act because they feel morally obligated, not optional.

What is “tension” for Socrates and King?

Socrates: mental tension. King: social tension. Both needed for growth.

What key question does the reading raise?

Should life focus on thinking or acting to find meaning?

What makes someone “invincible” in Stoicism?

Valuing only what’s under your control.

What is the Fundamental Division?

Some things are up to us; most things aren’t.

What are “externals” in Stoicism?

Wealth, status, pleasure — things we can’t control.

How do Stoics understand emotions?

Emotions come from judgments, not events.

What are Stoic askeses?

Mental exercises that train detachment and clarity.

How should Stoics approach relationships?

With love, but realistic awareness of change and loss.

What defines our duties to others?

Our relationships (parent, child, neighbor, citizen).

Who is a Stoic “progressor”?

Someone improving but not yet fully wise

What is the “progressor’s temptation”?

Pride in early progress, leading to backsliding.

What is the Stoic path to invincibility?

Focus on inner virtue, ignore uncontrollable externals.

What does the KonMari method reveal about modern life?

It shows people crave contemplation—pausing to ask what truly brings joy.