chapter 28

Friedrich Nietzsche

German philosopher who challenged traditional morality and religion, arguing that values are human-made and promoting ideas like the "will to power" and the Übermensch.

nihilism

belief that life lacks inherent meaning, purpose, or objective moral values, often associated with the decline of religious and moral certainty.

logical empiricism

philosophical movement arguing that meaningful statements must be logically provable or empirically verifiable, rejecting metaphysics.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

Austrian-British philosopher who argued that philosophy should clarify language, emphasizing how meaning comes from use.

existentialism

philosophy stressing individual freedom, choice, and responsibility in a world without inherent meaning.

Jean-Paul Sartre

French existentialist philosopher who argued that "existence precedes essence" and humans must create their own meaning.

Søren Kierkegaard

Danish philosopher emphasizing individual faith, subjective truth, and personal commitment as responses to existential anxiety.

Christian existentialism

belief that individuals find meaning through a personal relationship with God despite doubt and uncertainty.

Marie Curie

physicist and chemist who pioneered research on radioactivity and won two Nobel Prizes in different sciences.

Max Planck

physicist who introduced quantum theory, proposing that energy is released in discrete units called quanta.

Albert Einstein

physicist who developed the theory of relativity, transforming understanding of space, time, and energy.

Sigmund Freud

founder of psychoanalysis who emphasized the role of the unconscious mind in shaping behavior.

id

part of Freud's psyche driven by instinctual desires and the pleasure principle.

ego

rational part of the psyche that mediates between the id, superego, and reality.

superego

moral conscience of the psyche, shaped by societal rules and values.

Marcel Proust

French writer known for exploring memory and subjective experience in In Search of Lost Time.

stream-of-consciousness

literary technique that depicts the continuous flow of a character's thoughts and feelings.

Virginia Woolf

modernist writer who used stream-of-consciousness to explore inner psychological life.

William Faulkner

American modernist novelist known for complex narratives and shifting perspectives.

James Joyce

Irish writer whose experimental works revolutionized modern literature, especially Ulysses.

Franz Kafka

writer whose works portray alienation, bureaucracy, and absurdity in modern life.

George Orwell

writer and political critic known for exposing totalitarianism and abuses of power.

functionalism

architectural principle that form should follow function, emphasizing practicality over ornamentation.

Frank Lloyd Wright

American architect who promoted organic architecture blending buildings with their environment.

Bauhaus

German design school combining art, craft, and technology with functional modern design.

expressionism

artistic movement emphasizing emotional experience over realistic representation.

Vincent van Gogh

post-impressionist painter known for intense color and emotional expression.

Paul Gauguin

post-impressionist artist who sought spiritual meaning through symbolic and non-Western themes.

Pablo Picasso

Spanish artist and co-founder of cubism who transformed modern art.

cubism

art movement depicting subjects through fragmented geometric forms and multiple perspectives.

dadaism

anti-art movement rejecting logic and traditional aesthetics in response to World War I.

surrealism

artistic movement exploring dreams, the unconscious, and irrational imagery.

futurism

movement celebrating speed, technology, violence, and modern industrial life.

Igor Stravinsky

composer whose innovative rhythms and harmonies transformed modern music.

atonality

musical style lacking a central key, breaking traditional harmonic structures.

Charlie Chaplin

silent film actor and director who used comedy to critique social injustice.

Sergei Eisenstein

Soviet filmmaker known for revolutionary montage techniques in cinema.

Leni Riefenstahl

German filmmaker whose innovative techniques were used for Nazi propaganda.

John Maynard Keynes

economist who argued that government intervention is necessary to stabilize economies.

"Little Entente" of 1921

alliance of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania to prevent Hungarian expansion.

Weimar Republic

democratic government of Germany from 1919-1933 marked by instability and economic crisis.

Raymond Poincaré

French leader who supported strict enforcement of German reparations after World War I.

Ruhr crisis

1923 occupation of Germany's Ruhr region by France and Belgium after Germany defaulted on reparations.

Gustav Stresemann

German statesman who stabilized the economy and improved relations with Western Europe.

Dawes Plan

1924 plan that restructured German reparations and stabilized its economy with U.S. loans.

Locarno meetings

1925 agreements guaranteeing Germany's western borders and promoting European cooperation.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

1928 agreement renouncing war as a tool of national policy.

Adolph Hitler

leader of the Nazi Party who became dictator of Germany and initiated World War II.

Munich beer hall revolution

failed 1923 coup attempt by Hitler, also known as the Beer Hall Putsch.

Social Democrats

political party supporting democratic socialism and welfare reforms in Germany.

French Popular Front

left-wing coalition government formed in 1936 to oppose fascism and enact social reforms.