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Independent variable
The variable that is changed or controlled in an experiment to test its effects on the dependent variable.
Dependent variable
The variable being tested and measured in an experiment.
Control
The part of the experiment that remains constant and is used as a baseline for comparison.
Atom
Smallest unit of matter.
Element
A pure substance made of only one type of atom.
Compound
A substance made of two or more elements chemically bonded.
Monomer
A single molecule that can bond with others to form a polymer.
Polymer
A large molecule made of repeated monomer units.
Hydrogen bond
Formed between a hydrogen atom in one molecule and a highly electronegative atom in another.
Denaturing
Changes in temperature, pH, or salinity that can alter the shape of enzymes, preventing them from working.
Activation energy
The minimum energy required for a reaction to start.
Prokaryotic cells
Cells that lack a nucleus, are smaller, and have a simple structure.
Eukaryotic cells
Cells that have a nucleus, are larger, and have a complex structure.
Glycolysis
The breakdown of one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
Cancer cells
Cells that divide uncontrollably due to mutations in genes regulating the cell cycle.
Gametes
Haploid cells containing half the chromosome number (like sperm and egg).
Somatic cells
Diploid cells containing the full set of chromosomes found in body cells.
Homologous chromosomes
Pairs of chromosomes that have the same genes at the same loci but possibly different alleles.
Dominant allele
An allele that masks the effect of a recessive allele in heterozygotes.
Recessive allele
An allele that is only expressed when two copies are present.
Pedigree chart
A chart that tracks inheritance patterns of traits across generations.
Codon
A sequence of 3 mRNA nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid.
Start codon
Signals the starting point of translation.
tRNA
Transfers amino acids to ribosomes during translation.
rRNA
Forms ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis.
mRNA
Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
ATP
A molecule that releases energy by losing a phosphate group to become ADP.
Light dependent reactions
Occur in the thylakoid, using water and sunlight to produce oxygen, ADP, and NADPH.
Light independent reactions
Occur in the stroma, using CO₂, ATP, and NADPH to produce glucose.
Note 
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