behaviourist AO1

What are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach? x4

• all behaviour is learned

• Tabula rasa - a baby’s mind is a blank slate that is written on by lived experience

• Basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species

• All learning is based on classical and operant conditioning

What is classical conditioning?

An unconscious learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together.

Neutral stimulus → no response

Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus → unconditioned response

Neutral stimulus → conditioned response

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

Something that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning

What is a conditioned stimulus?

A previously neutral stimulus which after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus repeatedly comes to elicit a conditioned response on its own

What is a neutral stimulus?

Something in the environment that doesn’t naturally produce a particular response

Unconditioned response?

A natural unlearned and automatic reflex behaviour triggered by an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response

An automatic response established by training to a previously neutral stimulus.

Forward conditioning?

Type of CC where a conditioned stimulus is presented just be for an unconditioned stimulus to create an association.

Backward conditioning?

Type of CC where an unconditioned stimulus is presented before a neutral or conditioned stimulus

What is extinction?

The process by which a conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears because the conditioned stimulus is repeated presented without the unconditioned stimulus that originally created the association.

Spontaneous recovery?

The phenomenon where an unconditioned response that was previously extinct suddenly reappears after a period of rest without further pairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

Stimulus generalisation

The phenomenon where an individual responds to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus leading to the same or a similar learned response

Stimulus discrimination

The learned ability to differentiate between a specific target stimulus and other similar but irrelevant stimuli, and to respond only to the target stimulus.

Operant conditioning?

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

What did skinner suggest?

Learning is an active process where animals and humans operate on their environment

How does OC differ from CC?

Behaviours is explained to be voluntary

Positive punishment?

Adding an undesirable stimulus following an unwanted behaviour to decrease likelihood of behaviour being repeated.

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus following an unwanted behaviour to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated

Positive reinforcement

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed to increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated

Negative reinforcement

When an animal or human does something to avoid something unpleasant therefore the outcome is a positive experience, increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.

Schedules of reinforcement

The timing and frequency of rewards given for a desirable behaviour influencing the persistence of a behaviour

Systematic desensitisation

A therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through CC. If a person is able to relax with the phobic stimulus present, phobia is cured.

Counter conditioning

When a new response to the phobic stimulus is learned

What are the 3 processes of systematic desensitisation?

• anxiety hierarchy - The client lists situations related to the phobic stimulus that provoke anxiety, arranged from least to most frightening.

• Relaxation - The therapist teaches the client to relax as deeply as possible through breathing exercises, mental imagery techniques or medication.

• Exposure - client is exposed to the phobic stimulus while relaxed, several sessions, increase up hierarchy gradually.

Flooding?

Involves exposing a person to their phobic stimulus but there is not gradual build up, typically lasts 2-3 hours.

How does flooding work?

Eliminating avoidance behaviour from the client and therefore the client is able to learn the phobic stimulus is harmless.

Ethical issues with flooding?

It is an unpleasant experience so fully informed consent it vital for this traumatic procedure enabling them to be fully prepared

What is a token economy programme?

A programme in which positive behaviours are rewarded and negative behaviours are discouraged

What are tokens?

Rewards for good behaviour that can be exchanged for treats, acting as secondary reinforcers while the primary reinforcement is the treat itself

Where are token economy programmes used?

Educational settings, prisons, psychiatric hospitals

aims (Pavlov)

To study CC and see if a neutral stimulus could be one associated with a reflex response through pairing neutral and unconditioned stimuli.

To study function of the brain in adaptation to the external environment

Stimuli and responses (Pavlov)

Neutral stimulus - metronome sound before CC

unconditioned stimulus - food

Conditioned stimulus - metronome after CC

Conditioned response - salivation to sound

Unconditioned response - salivation to food

Procedure? (Pavlov)

1. Pavlov dogs put in harnesses, secluded individually.

2. Tube surgically connected to salivary glands and connected to a device that counted amount of saliva secreted.

3. Contained of food placed in front of dogs.

4. Metronome set alone to show lack of salivation, data recorded (saliva).

5. Metronome introduced to dogs before fed.

6. Repeated number of times, metronome set on its own.

Findings (Pavlov)

Dogs salivated to sound of metronome after CC just as they would to food.

Strengths (Pavlov) x3

Establishes foundations of behaviourism and therefore therapeutic techniques - behavioural therapy

High control - increased validity and less EVs

Able to explain phobias

Limitations (Pavlov) x4

Unethical - animals likely died

Difficult to generalise to humans as we operate at a higher cognitive level

Only explains involuntary behaviour

Cognitive and biological factors ignored

Conclusions? (Pavlov)

• behaviours can be learned through association between different stimuli

• Law of temporal contiguity - if time between CS and UCS too great, learning won’t occur

• unconditioning and extinguishing - if CS presented too many times without UCS, association and CR weakens

• Spontaneous recovery

• Generalisation - response may appear to similar stimuli

Aim (skinner)

To investigate how behaviours can be shaped and modified through reinforcement and punishment providing an insight into OC

Positive reinforcement procedure (skinner)

1. hungry rat placed in box

2. Rat presses lever and receives food pellets

3. Researcher. Erasures frequency rat presses lever after that

Positive reinforcement findings (skinner)

Observed that the rat pressed the lever more after its accidental discovery

Negative reinforcement procedure (skinner)

1. Rat placed in box with electric grid in floor

2. Rat subjected to series of electric shocks

3. Rat accidentally triggers lever that causes shocks to stop

Negative reinforcement findings (skinner)

Rat pressed lever less after discovery

Positive punishment procedure (skinner)

1. Rat placed in box with electric grid floor

2. Rat received shock when lever pressed

Positive punishment findings (skinner)

Decerease in number of times rat pressed lever

Procedure to test schedules of reinforcement (skinner)

Lever dispensed food at variable ratios in predictable patterns, e.g. food released every 5th lever press

Schedules of reinforcement findings (skinner)

Regular schedule of reinforcement led to increase in frequency of lever being pressed, however irregular was better at shaping extinction resistant behaviours.

Skinner conclusions x2

Experiment emphasised role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviour

Regular schedules of reinforcement are more effective for learning new behaviour and irregular schedules are better at long term shaping and extinction resistance

Skinner strengths x4

• can be applied to real situations

• Standardised and controlled procedure - reliable

• Scientific - internal validity

• Provided evidence for OC

Skinner weaknesses x4

• can’t explain why people repeated unpleasant behaviours

• Hard to generalise to humans

• Unethical - animals harmed

• Low ecological validity