APHG Unit 4

State

Has a defined boundary, contains a permanent population, maintains sovereignty over its domestic and international affairs, is recognized by other states

Sovereignty

The power of a political unit, or government, to rule over its own affairs

Nation

A group of people who have certain things in common including: a common cultural heritage, a set of beliefs and values that unify them, a traditional claim to a particular space as their homeland, a desire to establish their own state or express self-rule in another way

Nation-State

A nation of people who fulfill the qualifications of a state

Multinational state

A country that contains more than one nation

Autonomous region

A well defined area within a state that has a high degree of self-government and freedom from its parent state and is an ethnic minority within the entire country.

Semiautonomous region

A state that has a degree of, but not complete, self-rule

Stateless nation

A cultural group that has no independent political entity

Multistate nation

Occurs when a nation has a state of its own but stretches across borders or other states

Nationalism

A nation’s desire to create and maintain a state of its own

Imperialism

A broad concept that includes a variety of ways of influencing another country or group of people by direct conquest, economic control, or cultural dominance.

Colonialism

A particular type of imperialism in which people move into and settle on the land of another country liju

Self-Determination

The right to choose their own sovereign government without external influence

Decolonization

The undoing of colonization, in which indigenous people reclaim sovereignty over their territory

Genocide

Organized mass killing, in which people are targeted because of their race, religion, ethnicity, or nationality

The Cold War

A period of diplomatic, political, and military rivalry between the U.S. and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), a confederation of 15 republics, including Russia (1945-1991)

Satellite States

A state dominated by another both politically and economically.

Devolution

The process in which one or more regions are given increased autonomy by the central political unit

Ethnic Cleansing

The forced removal of a minority ethnic group from a territory

Shatterbelt

A place that suffers instability because it is located between two very different and contentious regions

Geopolitics

The study of the effects of geography on politics and relations among states/The study of how geography (location, terrain, resources) influences international politics, power dynamics, and state relations

Territoriality

A willingness by a person or a group of people to defend space they claim.

Neocolonialism

A new system of colonialism that emerged in the aftermath of WW1 and WW2 in which economic, political, or even cultural control is indirectly exerted over developing countries.

Ex: Transnational corporations based in European countries continued to control the extraction of natural resources through mining and the export of coffee, cacao, bananas, and other crops on plantations in developing countries

Modern Globalization

The rapid, intensified interconnectedness of the world since the late 20th century, driven by technology (internet, rapid transport) and capitalism, leading to massive flows of goods, capital, people, ideas, and culture, creating a global economy with both increased wealth/opportunities (like global brands, supply chains) and challenges (like inequality, cultural homogenization, environmental issues)

After WW2, UN and NGOs provided food and economic aid for countries, several European and US states offered conditional aid, newly independent states developed powerful central governments, US and Europe offered loans to many of these developing countries if they reduced regulations and opened up to more free trade.

Choke Points

A place of physical congestion between wider regions of movement and interaction

Physical geographic boundaries

Natural barriers between areas such as oceans, deserts, and mountains.

ex: the Missouri River divides Iowa and Nebraska, the Himalayan Mountains separate India and China

Cultural boundaries

Divide people according to some cultural division, such as language, religion, or ethnicity. A cultural boundary may exist in the midst of a gradual change over space

ex: In China, cuisine was once divided into two regions: wheat-based in the north and rice-based in the south.

Antecedent boundary

A political border established before a region was densely populated or culturally developed

ex: The Andes Mountains form a boundary between Chile and Bolivia and Argentina

Subsequent boundary

A political border drawn after an area has been settled, evolving with the cultural landscape to reflect ethnic, linguistic, or religious divisions, often resulting from negotiation or conflict, like many European borders

ex: The border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland created due to resentment over internal borders and political violence between Scots and English Protestants who settled in the northern region and Roman Catholics who originally lived there.

Superimposed boundary

A political border forced onto a region by an external power, disregarding existing cultural, ethnic, or linguistic patterns, often causing conflict

Relic boundary

a former political border that no longer functions officially (for political purposes) but is still visible or felt in the cultural landscape

ex: The Berlin Wall that divided East and West Berlin was torn down in 1989. During end of Cold War, East and West Germany reunited, but portions of the Berlin Wall are still upright.

Ethnographic

Usually related to cultural phenomena/relating to the scientific description of peoples and cultures with their customs, habits, and mutual differences.

Landlocked states

W/o territory connected to an ocean.

Geometric boundary

A straight line or arc drawn by people that does not closely follow any physical feature.

ex: The majority of the boundary between US and Canada follows along the 49th parallel (latitude). After WW2, NK and SK were divided among the 38th parallel.

Consequent boundary

A type of subsequent border that takes into account already existing cultural or physical landscapes

Cultural consequent boundary

A border that is drawn taking into account language, ethnicity, religion, or other cultural traits. Created with the cultural landscape as a primary consideration.

ex: The partition of the British colony of India in 1947, creating a Hindu majority in India and a Muslim majority in Pakistan

Physical consequent boundary

A division that uses already existing natural features that divide a territory such as rivers, deserts, or mountains

ex: The Pyrenees Mountains that run across the northern edge of the Iberian Peninsula, separating Spain from France, and completely surrounding the country of Andorra.

Open boundary

Unguarded, people can cross it easily, with little or no political intervention. These borders only occur between countries that have maintained friendly relations with each other over long periods of time.

ex: most states within the EU (European Union) fit this category. The 1985 Schengen Agreement abolished most border checks between member states, making most of the continent effectively borderless.

Militarized boundaries

One that is heavily guarded and discourages crossing. While many of these borders only have a limited military presence, others are fortified, using a constructed barrier to prevent the flow of people.

ex: India has constricted a guarded 1,700 mile barbed wire fence along its border w/ Bangladesh to curb immigration and smuggling.

Korean DMZ (Demilitarized Zone)

Separates NK and SK. Established in 1953 after the cease-fire that ended the Korean War. Almost completely blocks the flow of trade and people.

Berlin Conference

A meeting of European powers, organized by Otto von Bismarck, to set rules for colonizing Africa, carving it up into spheres of influence without African representation, establishing arbitrary borders that ignored ethnic groups, and fueling future instability and conflict through this 'Scramble for Africa'.

Major players were Germany, France, Great Britain, and Portugal leading, alongside Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway, the Ottoman Empire, and the United States

Defined boundary

Established by a legal document, such as a treaty, that divides one entity from another. (Invisible line)

Delimited boundary

Drawn on a map by a cartographer to show the limits of space.

Demarcated boundary

A boundary identified by physical objects placed on the landscape. Could be a sign or a fence/wall.

Informal boundary

Boundaries that are not set formally. Includes ones marking the spheres of influence by powerful countries at the regional scale (Ex: Monroe Doctrine) and ones at a local level (Ex: dividing the neighborhoods controlled by various street gangs)

Definitional boundary dispute

Occurs when two or more parties disagree over how to interpret the legal documents or maps that identify the boundary, often occurs with antecedent boundaries. (Ex: Boundary between Chile and Argentina is the Andes Mountain but most of the southern lands were neither settled nor accurately mapped, control of this territory lies in dispure)

Locational/territorial boundary dispute

Boundary disputes that center on where a boundary should be, how it is delimited (mapped), or demarcated. (Ex: post WW1 boundary between Germany and Poland. Germany disputed the location because it controlled land prior to WW1 but border drawn after war left many German people on Polish side.

Irredentism

A type of expansionism when one country seeks to annex territory where it has cultural ties to part of the population or historical claims to the land.

Operational/functional boundary dispute

Centers not on where a boundary is but how it functions. Disagreements can arise related to trade, transportation, or migration. Ex: Refugees fled Syria during 2011 Civil war and attempted to enter Europe. Europeans viewed their national boundaries differently (Interior countries viewed the countries to the East and South as responsible for stopping migrants, while others felt the boundaries should stay open in order to help Refugees.)

Allocational/resource boundary dispute

When a boundary separates natural resources that may be used by both countries Ex: Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 because it claimed that the Kuwaits were drilling too many wells using directional drilling, thus breaking the vertical plane and extracting oil on the Iraqi side of the boundary. (Disputes often may be about oil, fresh water, minerals, fishing rights)

Demarcation

How a border is labeled on the physical landscape such as with a fence, walls, stores, or signs

Administered boundary

Borders actively managed, enforced, and maintained by a government using checkpoints, patrols, laws, and regulations to control movement, goods, and people (Israeli-West Bank separates Israeli claims from Palestine’s)

Controlled boundary

Boundaries that have a checkpoint where a passport or visa are required to enter the country.

Exclave

Territories that are part of a state, yet geographically separated from the main state by one or more countries. (Alaska is separated from lower 48 U.S. stats by Canada)

Enclave

States, territories, or parts of a state or territory that are completely surrounded by the territory of another state. (Sovereign states San Marino and the Vatican City are completely engulfed by Italy)

Territorial Sea

A belt of coastal water extends up to 12 nautical miles from a state’s baseline, where commercial vessels may pass, but non-commercial vessels may be challenged. Coastal nation exercises full sovereignty.

Contiguous Zone

a maritime area extending up to 24 nautical miles (nm) from a coastal state's baseline, beyond its 12 nm territorial sea, where the state can enforce laws related to customs, fiscal, immigration, and sanitary regulations to prevent or punish infringements within its territory or territorial sea.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

a maritime area extending up to 200 nautical miles from a coastal state's baseline, where that nation has exclusive rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage marine resources like fish, oil, and wind energy

High Seas

International water beyond EEZ

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

A comprehensive international treaty, often called the "constitution of the oceans," that establishes a legal framework for all ocean space, defining maritime zones, regulating navigation, resource management, environmental protection, and peaceful use of the seas, adopted in 1982 and in force since 1994

Small Island Developing States (SIDS)

A group of low-lying coastal countries, many of which are islands, that face unique and similar challenges regarding sustainable development.

Internal boundaries

Political or administrative lines dividing subdivisions within a country, like states, counties, or voting districts, defining governance, resource allocation, and local identity, differing from international borders between countries

Electoral geography

Using spatial thinking techniques and tools to analyze elections and voting patterns.

Voting districts

Internal boundaries that divide a country’s electorate into subnational regions.

Electorate

People of a country that are eligible to vote

Census

The systematic collection of demographic, social, and economic data about an entire population at regular intervals

Reapportionment

Changing the number of representatives granted to each state so it reflects the state’s population.

Redistricting

State legislatures or state committees redraw district boundaries so each district contains roughly the same number of people.

Gerrymandering

The drawing of boundaries for political districts by the party in power to protect or increase the power.

Cracking

Dispersing a group into several districts to prevent a majority.

Packing

Combining like-minded voters into one district to prevent them from affecting elections in other districts.

Stacking

Diluting a minority population district with majority populations.

Hijacking

Redrawing two districts in order to force two elected representatives of the same party to run against each other.

Kidnapping

Moving an area where an elected representative has support to an area where he/she doesn’t have support.

Federal state

Unites separate political entities into an overarching system that allows each entity to maintain some degree of sovereignty. Power is divided and shared between a central national government and smaller, regional governments (states, provinces) Ex: Germany, the U.S., Nigeria

Unitary state

Most or all of the governing power is held by the national government. All local governments in a unitary system are subject to the authority of the national government. (Ex: France, Japan, Kenya)

Annexation

The process of legally adding territory to a city.

Ethnic seperatism

The advocacy of full political separation (or secession) from the larger group along cultural, tribal, or governmental lines.

Ethnic cleansing

A purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent or terror-inspiring means the civil population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas.

Terrorism

Organized violence aimed at government and civilian targets to create fear for the advancement of political goals.

Subnationalism

People who have a primary allegiance to a traditional group or ethnicity.

Balkanization

The fragmentation of a state or region into smaller, often hostile, units along ethno-linguistic lines.

Globalization

The integration of markets, states, communication, and trade on a worldwide scale.

Supranationalism

The practice of multiple countries forming an organization for the benefit of all members.

United Nations (UN)

193 member states, goal is to promote peace, security, and human rights.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

30 member states (U.S., Canada, Iceland, most countries in western and central Europe), goal is to provide mutual defense of member states.

European Union (EU)

27 member states (mostly in western and central Europe), goal is to integrate member states politically and econpm

United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)

Formerly NAFTA, 3 member states (US, Mexico, Canada), goal is to stimulate free trade among members

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

10 member states from South East Asia, goal is to advance economic growth, peace, social progress, and cultural and economic development in the region.

Arctic Council

8 member states (only countries w territory in the Arctic including Canada, Russia, US, and countries of Northern Europe), goal is to foster cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the Arctic states with participation of Arctic indigenous communities

African Union

55 member states (all countries in Africa), To advocate peace, security, and stability on the continent through greater cooperation, economic development, and global integration.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

Goal is to have countries agree to a set of fair and non-discriminatory guidelines for international trade and make sure trade flows smoothly, freely, and predictably.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

12 member states (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela, alongside Algeria, Angola, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Libya, Nigeria, and the United Arab Emirates) Goal is to coordinate and unify its member petroleum policies in order to stabilize oil markets.

Transnational corporations

Companies that conduct business on a global scale

Democratization

The transition from autocratic to more representative forms of politi

Time-space compression

The social and psychological effects of faster movement of information over space in a shorter period of time.

Centrifugal forces

Forces that divide a country/people

Centripetal forces

Forces that unite a country/people

Regionalism

The loyalty and focus on a distinct geographic area, emphasizing its unique cultural, economic, or political identity, often prioritizing regional interests (like autonomy or unique traditions) over national ones

Nationalism

The strong feelings of patriotism and loyalty one feels toward one’s country that promotes a sense of belonging. A nation’s desire to create and maintain a state of its ownpromote