ap psych unit 4

learning

a relatively permanent change in the behavior of an organism due to experience

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; events may be 2 stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning)

cognitive learning

acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, watching others, or language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent be

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment and produces consequences

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (classical conditioning)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance (after a pause) of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency (once the response has been conditioned) for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses; in operant conditioning, occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other similar situations

discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal and unconditioned stimulus (classical conditioning)

the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced (operant conditioning

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally/automatically) triggers an unconditioned response

unconditioned response

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (classical conditioning)

conditioned stimulus

an originally neutral stimulus that, after associated with an unconditioned response, comes to trigger a conditioned response (classical conditioning)

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus

acquisition

the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response (classical conditioning)

the strengthening of a reinforced response (operant conditioning)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response

occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

higher-order conditioning

procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a 2nd (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

law of effect

thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber (skinner box)

a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food/water reinforcer; attached devices record animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows (operant conditioning)

shaping

reinforcers guiding a behavior toward a closer and closer approximation of desired behavior

discriminative stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response after association with a reinforcement (operant conditioning)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers

positive reinforcer

any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli

negative reinforcer

any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction that does continuous reinforcement

fixed ratio

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified number of responses (operant conditioning)

fixed interval

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (operant conditioning)

variable ratio

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (operant conditioning)

variable interval

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (operant conditioning)

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

aversive conditioning

associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior; a type of counterconditioning

reinforcer

a stimulus that increases the likelihood that a specific behavior will occur

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others

modeling

process of observing and imitating specific behaviors

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when an individual executes a motor act and when he observes another individual performing the same or a similar motor act

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful social behavior; opposite of antisocial behavior