Global Interactions Caribb

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Political Influences Nowadays, by dint of location if nothing else, the US is the main power to exert political infl uence over the region. It controls much of the f i nancial aid received by countries through institutions such as the IMF and until the end of the Cold War had a vested interest in keeping the Caribbean nations ‘on side’ and away from communist infl uence, which had already taken hold of Cuba. To this end, it launched the invasion of Grenada in 1983, after internal affairs there reached crisis point with the overthrow and execution of Maurice Bishop, ostensibly to restore democracy. However, in terms of systems of government, the Caribbean still follows European models. The Parliamentary Process in the English-speaking Caribbean:The Westminster System/Model This parliamentary system of government, named after the Palace of Westminster, the home of the British Parliament, is in use today in many former British colonies in the Caribbean. Like the judicial system, it is part of the legacy of British colonial rule, though it is important to note that there are many variants on the basic system, in structure and where specifi c powers lie worldwide – and even within the Caribbean region itself. Many Caribbean states are constitutional monarchies that still recognise the British sovereign as head of state, represented by a governor-general. In fact, many British ex-colonies around the world adopted, and adapted, the Westminster System and together make up the British Commonwealth with the British monarch as its head. Making the Connection Some of the challenges posed to educational providers by the information age are discussed in Chapter 15 ‘The Integration Movement’. Making the Connection The implications of the use of ‘Standard’ English in formal education for Caribbean society are discussed in Chapter 9 ‘Societal Institutions’. Making the Connection Chapter 14 ‘Globalisation and Development’ looks at the impact of global politics and ideologies on the region, especially during the Cold War and after. 218 REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES There are four main parts to a Westminster type system of government: 1. The head of state – the monarch (king or queen), represented in the British Commonwealth by a governor general, or a president, the role of whom is mainly ceremonial. They also form part of the executive. Making the Connection Prior to independence, British colonies were under Crown Colony rule, which in many places had replaced the Old Representative System.These systems of government, and the process by which one replaced the other, are explained in Chapter 5 ‘The Historical Process’. Key Term Parliament – a legislative elected body of government. A parliament generally has three functions: representing the electorate, making laws and overseeing the government. Quick Fact The Westminster System is different from other forms of democracies in that the head of state is usually a monarch (in the case of constitutional monarchies) and differs from the head of government . Making the Connection The achievement of political independence in the Caribbean is described in Chapter 5 ‘The Historical Process’. 2. The executive arm – the government, responsible for administering laws and mainly consisting of key members of the legislature in ministerial positions, who form the cabinet (or executive council) led by the head of government, usually called the prime minister, premier or fi rst minister. 3. The legislative arm – the elected parliament who make laws, approve budgets and to whom the executive is accountable. 4. The judiciary – the judges, responsible for the application and interpretation of laws. They are independent of the executive and the legislature. The government is supported by a permanent and politically unaffi liated civil service

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The real power lies with the head of government, usually called the prime minister, who has full executive and constitutional powers as outlined by the constitution and heads the main policy-making body of government known as the cabinet. The cabinet is usually drawn from the lower house of parliament and is chosen by the prime minister to head the various government ministries/departments. Appointments from the upper house are often limited to two. Parliaments can be bicameral, consisting of two assemblies (the lower house, usually called the House of Representatives or House of Assembly, and the upper house, usually called the Senate) or unicameral comprising just one assembly. Members of the lower house are elected in general CARIBBEAN–GLOBAL INTERACTIONS 219 elections to represent various areas, called constituencies, or sections of the population. Members of the upper house in the Caribbean are usually nominated by the head of government, the parliamentary opposition and/or the governor-general and appointed by the executive. The upper house is the smaller of the two legislative bodies and while in theory both houses have similar levels of authority, apart from on fi nancial matters, actual power usually lies predominantly with the lower house, as in the UK. The role of the upper house is therefore usually to review legislation approved by the lower house. Typically, politics in the Westminster System are multi-party, usually involving two main parties in opposition to each other. The party that wins most votes forms the government and its leader usually becomes the head of government. The opposition party forms what is known as a shadow cabinet, or shadow government, to mirror, scrutinise and respond to the various departments of the executive and their activities. Those members of the ruling party who are not appointed to governmental positions form the ‘back benches’. Traditionally, these back-bench MPs provide another check on the government as, in principle, they are free to vote as they choose. The third arm of government is the judiciary. This group is the only arm that is in no way aligned to the elected members of parliament in their constitutionally defi ned roles and obligations. It is the job of the courts, through judges, to interpret the law (which may sometimes differ from what the legislators intended) and infl uence the law-making process through judicial reviews and setting judicial precedents via rulings. The principle that divides the role of judges from the parliament, and shields them from parliamentary infl uence, is known as separation of powers. Did You Know? There are some fundamental differences between the Westminster System as it exists in the UK and how it has been implemented in the Caribbean. These include: • The role of governor-general in the Caribbean has no equivalent in the UK, where the monarch is the direct head of state. • The UK has no written constitution and so the rules governing parliament are conventions. In the Caribbean, they are codifi ed in the form of constitutions. • The existence of a written constitution means that the concept of ‘parliamentary supremacy’ in the UK is replaced by that of ‘constitutional supremacy’ in the Caribbean. • The relatively small size of Caribbean parliaments can mean that the in built systems of formal opposition to the government in parliament (the parliamentary opposition and back-bench MPs) are so small in number as to be negligible

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The Rule of Law The rule of law is a principle emanating from the constitution. The concept can be dated back to Ancient Greece and its principles lie behind such formative political statements as Magna Carta in the UK Making the Connection The role of the constitution in the creation of a legal basis for government and society is discussed in the section on the Judicial System in Chapter 9 ‘Societal Institutions’. Quick Facts Within the English-speaking Caribbean, heads of government carry different titles. Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago all have a ‘prime minister’, while Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, and Turks and Caicos Islands have a ‘premier’. The Republic of Guyana has a ‘president’ and Anguilla has a ‘chief minister’. Quick Facts Most Caribbean parliaments are bicameral, while those of Dominica, St Kitts and Nevis and St Vincent and the Grenadines are unicameral. The British parliament at Westminster is bicameral. 220 REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES Key Term Separation of powers– a principle central to modern democracies whereby the powers and responsibilities of a government are divided among the legislative, executive and judicial branches. This is done as a means of limiting corruption and ensuring that each arm of government holds the others accountable for their actions. and the American Constitution. This principle is also entrenched in the structure of governments and is evident in the way these systems restrict or limit the arbitrary exercise of power of any elected or nominated member of parliament, member of the judiciary or their bureaucrats and technocrats. Did You Know? There are criticisms that the separation of powers in the Westminster System has not always worked in the Caribbean because the legislature and executive are not sufficiently separate, which allows party leaders, as heads of government, too many powers that are open to abuse. However, it cannot be denied that the often almost instant change from colonial rule to full-blown democracy in the region has gone relatively smoothly, with only few serious incidents where the rule of law has been infringed; for example, the takeover and subsequent overthrow of Maurice Bishop in Grenada and the attempted coups in Trinidad and Tobago in the 1970s and 1990s. Key Term Rule of law – the legal principle that all citizens are subject to well-defined and established laws. It is the role of the judiciary to ensure that these laws are upheld in an equitable and fair way. In a political context, this is the principle that a nation should be governed by, and not be subject to arbitrary exercise of power. Quick Fact Under the Westminster System, the highest court of appeal for the Caribbean was traditionally the Privy Council in the UK. CARICOM’s establishment of the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) has effectively cut this direct link back to the British legal system. Electoral Processes General elections are usually held in Caribbean countries every five years. The ‘fi rst past the post’ electoral system that is used in most of the English-speaking Caribbean was adopted by the colonies even before they gained independence. This system divides the electorate into constituencies. These constituencies are contested in a general election by a representative from each of the major political parties vying to lead the country. Independent candidates may also contest constituencies in general elections. This fi rst past the post electoral system does not rely on the total popular vote to determine the party that will form the government, as does the system of proportional representation (PR). The government is determined instead by the party that wins the most constituencies throughout the country, and therefore seats in parliament. Criticisms of this system include the following: • The fact that Members of Parliament, once elected, focus on voting along party lines, rather than truly representing the needs and rights of their constituents, so that the policies and laws desired by their party can be passed. • It may lead to gerrymandering where the sitting government manipulates constituency boundaries to ensure continuous general election wins. • The fact that elections are held every fi ve years, and that the winning party gains almost complete control of the legislature and the executive, can result in complete exclusion of others from participation in government. CARIBBEAN–GLOBAL INTERACTIONS 221 Did You Know? The PR system as used in Guyana is deemed to be well-suited to the social make-up of that country, where politics are divided along racial and ethnic lines, because it avoids the dominance of individual groups over others within set constituencies. However, PR is also argued to have drawbacks, such as complex and lengthy procedures, a tendency to lead to coalition governments and, with more focus on voting for a party rather than an individual candidate,

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The Infl uence of Migratory Labour The infl uence of migratory labour on the Caribbean is two-fold: 1. The Caribbean is infl uenced by those who come to work in the region from other countries, who may dwell in the Caribbean for long periods at a time depending on their contractual arrangements. In order to facilitate use of these foreign workers, Caribbean governments need to legislate for aspects such as work permits, residency and tax. 2. There are those Caribbean nationals who migrate to other countries in North America and Europe for work and live there for extended periods at a time. They may not only have developed a taste for foreign goods and services, but also become politicised. Thus, on their return, they may add new ideas to the political mix. Sport The Caribbean is internationally famous for its sports and sportsmen and women, particularly within cricket and track and fi eld, though the region’s teams have enjoyed success in other sports also. All major international sports came to the region through the colonial powers, or later through the infl uence of neocolonial powers such as the US. Cricket Cricket was introduced by the British in the 19th century and was at fi rst played only by the white elites. Even today, it is a game mostly associated with Britain and her ex-colonies. Over time, its popularity spread and the fi rst combined ‘West Indies’ team toured Canada and the US in the 1880s. From there, the game spread to eventually embrace Caribbean people from all walks of life and many Caribbean players play for foreign based clubs around the world (such as India, the UK and Australia). In the UK, until recently, it was traditionally viewed as a ‘gentleman’s game’ and it would be true to say that it was in the West Indies that it fi rst became more of a sport of the masses, with fl amboyant personalities and styles of play, and spectator involvement through various rituals and music. In fact, it could be argued to have become a Caribbean institution. Soccer Soccer is known simply as ‘football’ in the UK, where it originated, and throughout most of the world and it is probably the most popular game Quick Fact The ‘first past the post’ system is used today in Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica, Dominica, Grenada, St Lucia and even the republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Guyana has a system of proportional representation. Key Term System of proportional representation (PR) – seats in parliament are distributed between the political parties according to the total number of votes cast for each of them. There are several versions of this system used in various countries internationally. Making the Connection Chapter 16 ‘Contributions of Sport to Development’ analyses the role of sport in regional development, while Chapter 15 ‘The Integration Movement’ discusses the role of the West Indies Cricket Board in regional integration. Quick Fact The West Indies cricket team (‘The Windies’) is a sporting confederation of English-speaking Caribbean countries that represents the region in the international game. 222 REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES today. Internationally, Caribbean countries are represented individually and not regionally, as with cricket. Local nations have enjoyed only limited success at the international level, with only Haiti, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago reaching the World Cup fi nals. The region is achieving more recognition at international level, however, as shown by Jamaica being invited to participate in the 2016 Copa America. Basketball This is a recent and fast-growing addition to the Caribbean sports repertoire thanks to the infl uence of the US and its media. The game is relatively short and fast-paced and so appeals to the youth. The fact that successful players can also earn vast amounts from contracts and sponsorship adds to its appeal. Many young Caribbean players are therefore inspired to apply for sports scholarships to the US. Making the Connection Religion in the Caribbean, its different forms and their influences and impact, is discussed in detail in Chapter 9 ‘Societal Institutions’. Making the Connection Sports tourism is discussed in Chapter 16 ‘Contributions of Sport to Development’. Quick Fact In the late-19th and 20th centuries, newer forms of Christianity, mainly from North America, took hold in the Caribbean, especially among the lower social classes. The popularity of non-conformist churches, such as the Seventh Day Adventists and the Baptists, grew as a result of missionary activity and the return of converts to the Caribbean from the US. Track and Field This is probably the sport the region is most famous for internationally. The phenomenal achievements of Caribbean athletes have even inspired a form of sports tourism, attracting visitors to watch athletes training and to view the training regime and facilities that have created so much success. World-leading athletes include Kirani James of Grenada, Usain Bolt and Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce of Jamaica and Keshorn Walcott of Trinidad and Tobago