Unit 8: Period 8: 1945-1980
Unit 8: 1945-1980
- CCOT Bolshevik Revolution (communist gov) with Russia in 1917, led to the 1919 Red Scare
- The US did not recognize the Soviet Union until 1933
8.1 & 8.2
WW1
- The US-Soviet alliance out of convenience not trust, Stalin bore the brunt of fighting the Nazis since the US and its allies joined later
- 1945 United Nations established permanent seats for the US, GB, France, China, and the Soviet Union
- Soviets did not join the World Bank created at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 (do not support capitalism)
- Soviet forces remained after the war, and elections were held as promised in the Yalta Conference
- But elections manipulated = satellite states in Poland, Romania, etc
Germany
- The eastern zone became a new Communist state
- Soviets wanted weak Germany for security and large war reparations
- US + GB believed the economic recovery of Germany important to Central Europe's stability
Response
- Iron Curtain “has descended across the continent of Europe” → iron curtain speech by former British Prime minster Winston Churchill
- Containment policy made by George F Kennan: take actions to contain
- CCOT: appeasement does not work, 1938 Munich + Hitler
- Truman doctrine: implemented containment to help communist uprising in Greece and Soviet demands for water route in Turkey
Marshall Plan
- Europe Recovery Program was offered to Western Europe AND Eastern Europe (Soviet Union) but the Soviets rejected
- Helped US prosperity and Western Europe
Berlin Airlift
- June 1948: Soviets cut off all access by land to Berlin
- Supplies are flown in
- Stalin finally agreed to open the blockade after 11 months
NATO + National security
- Unlike Washington’s farewell address advised, Truman joined NATO
- The Soviet Union countered with Warsaw Pact
- 1947 National Security Act: modernized military capability and created the CIA
- Soviet Union + US were in an intense arms race regarding the atomic bomb
- NSC-68: quadrupled US government spending, form non-communist countries, and costly arms buildup IMPORTANT
Asia
- Japan under the control of General Douglas MacArthur
- Retained emperor as ceremonial head of state aka figurehead
- Only allowed limited military capability & success of the US
- In China, corruption and inflation led the Nationalist vs Mao Zedong Communists to conflict to resume after the war
- Truman decided to give $400 mil to the Nationalist gov - failed
- China fell to the communists
- Korean War → divided along the 38th parallel, leaving North with a communist leader
- Invaded South Korea and UN forces were sent, but the war had not been declared yet
- General MacArthur counterattacked until the Chinese border, but then the Chinese joined the fight
- MacArthur wanted to continue the war, but Truman disagreed → and recalled him for insubordination and a stalemate occurred at the 38th parallel
- Truman administration used the Korean War to justify expanding military
Eisenhower
- Secretary of State John Foster Dulles: brinkmanship, taking initiative and encouraging taking over communist governments
- Pushing to BRINK of war, but the war prevented by American nuclear superiority
- Massive retaliation: Dulles advocated for spending more on nuclear weapons than conventional military forces
- Korean Armistice 1953: with the death of Stalin, an armistice was agreed on
Soviet Relations
- Geneva conference 1954: a meeting between the “big four” of France, the US, GB, and Soviet Union’s new premier Nikolai Bulganin
- Thaw in Cold War
- 1956 → Nikita Kruschev became the new Soviet leader and hoped for peaceful coexistence
- Hungarian Revolt: thaw in Cold War encouraged uprisings against Communist leaders, in Hungry, it succeeded
- Khrushchev sent troops to crush them → Us took no action, scared of starting a war
- The space race began with Soviet Union’s satellites Sputnik
- Congress passed National Defense and Education Act (more money in schools for STEM) & created NASA
Problems Arising
- 2nd Berlin Crisis: Stalin threatened West to pull out troops from West Berlin
- Eisenhower and Stalin meet, and the problem is diffused → Second summit conference in Paris for 1960
- U-2 incident: Russians shot down a U-2 spy plane flying over the Soviet Union even after the open-skies proposal was rejected by them
- Kruschev walked out of the Paris summit, ended the thaw
- Military-industrial complex: the relationship between government, military, and industry
- Eisenhower warned against it in his farewell speech
Cuba
- Fidel Castro overthrew Cuban dictator Batista
- Nationalized American-owned businesses in Cuba, so Eisenhower cut off trade with Cuba
- Castro set up a Communist totalitarian state
- CUBA IS VERY CLOSE TO US
- Kennedy became president: and approved Eisenhower’s plan to have the CIA train anti-Communist exiles to invade & overthrow Castro
- Known as the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy did not send US forces to help, a FAIL
Continued Crises
- Berlin Wall: purpose to stop East Germans from fleeing to West German
- The US took no real action against it
- 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis: Castro invited the Soviets to build missile sites that could reach the US in minutes
- Kennedy responded by announcing a naval blockade of Cuba until weapons removed
- After 13 days of tension: Krushchev agreed to remove missiles in exchange for Kennedy’s promise to not invade Cuba and to remove US missiles from Turkey
- Aftereffect: Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: signed by the Soviet Union, the US, and 100 other nations
- Flexible response treaty: devised by Kennedy and his defense secretary Robert S. McNamara → wanted to increase spending on conventional weapons to prevent global destruction with nuclear weapons
Lyndon Johnson
- After President Kennedy was assassinated, Johnson (VP) took over
- Continued containment policy regarding Vietnam War
- Non-proliferation treaty: US, Britain, and Soviet Union promised to not help other countries develop nuclear weapons
Nixon 1969-1974
- Secretary of State/national security adviser: Henry Kissinger
- Nixon visited China and recognized them in 1979
- Used relationship with China to pressure Soviets with Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) to limit anti-ballistic missiles aka ABMS
Ford 1974-1977
- After Nixon’s Watergate scandal, many people lost their trust in the gov
- CIA practices were investigated
Jimmy Carter 1977-1981
- Plans to ratify SALT II until Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan
- Back to the period of confrontation
8.3 Red Scare
Rooting out Communists
- Under Truman (1974): Loyalty Review Board investigated over 3 mil federal employees
- Smith Act: made it illegal to advocate for the overthrow of gov by force
- In the House of reps, the House Un-American Activities Committee/HUAC was reactivated (by Nazis)
- Loyalty oaths became more common
- The Lottery & The Crucible!!
Espionage
- Alger Hiss: a prominent official, convicted of perjury and suspected Communist spy
- Rosenbergs: found guilty of treason for giving Russia information and executed
- Civil rights groups unhappy
Joseph McCarthy
- Used accusations about Communists to keep the media focused on himself & to discredit Truman's administration
- Loved by working-class Americans at first
- Army-McCarthy Hearings: McCarthy’s cruelty through televised hearings exposed
- McCarthyism died down
8.4 Economy After 1945
Postwar Economy
- Truman became president after Franklin Roosevelt’s death and tried to continue the New Deal economic policies of his predecessor
- GI Bill of Rights: helped many GIS attend college and supported the veterans’ transition back to a normal economy
- Did help the overall economy but increased the racial wealth gap (didn’t apply to blacks)
- Baby Boom & Suburban Growth
- Levittown: mass produced low priced family homes in NY, only for white families
- Rise of Sunbelt: warmer climate, lower taxes, and economic opportunities in defense-related industries
Truman VS Republican Congress
- Unhappy with inflation and strikes, the Republican majority dominated Congress
- 22nd amendment: limited president to 2 terms in office
- Tart-hartley Act: the goal was to keep unions in check
- Outlawed closed shop (required workers to join a union BEFORE being hired) & secondary boycotts
- Gave the president the power to invoke a cooling-off period before a possible strike
Truman’s Reflection 1948
- The liberal Progressive Party & conservative Dixiecrafts in Dem Party abandoned Truman→ Reps believed they would win
- Nominated Thomas E Dewey
- Truman still won
- Launched the Fair Deal reform program
- Most reforms were blocked by Congress except an increase in the minimum wage and more workers included in Social Security
- A reason it failed was pressing foreign policy of the Cold War took more attention
Eisenhower Election of 1952
- “Modern Republican”
- Fiscal conservative: wanted to balance the budget
- Even expanded Social Security
- Highway Act of 1956: authorized many interstate highways
- The goal was to improve national defense by facilitating movement but also creating jobs & accelerated suburbanization
- Hurt railroads and the environment
Kennedy & Johnson
- Kennedy promised to lead the nation into the “New Frontier”
- Brought glamour to the white house, the youngest candidate
- Johnson aggressively passed a domestic program that Kennedy failed to get through Congress
- Promoted his Great Society & war on poverty
Stagflation Time Baby!
- Starting with the recession in 1970, there was an economic slowdown and high inflation (aka stagflation)
- Nixon adopted Keynesian economics and deficit spending
- Imposed a 90-day wage + price freeze
- Took dollar off the gold standard
- The recession was over by 1972
More inflation
- Ford urged voluntary measures to fight inflation with WIN (whip inflation now)
- The economy sank deeper into a recession
- Carter: interest rates on loans were pushed higher, which helped to control inflation from 13% to 4% in 1982
- The postwar economy in the 1940s and 50s boomed, but the economic recovery of other nations resulted in less-expensive consumer products by 19702
8.5 Culture
- Television & media resulted in advertising → fast food & credit cards
- Rise of CONSUMERISM
- The popularity of teenagers’ rock and roll
- Rise of conglomerates and corporates: conformity
- AFL and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merge
Critics
- The Affluent Society was the idea that wealthy Americans should increase social spending for the greater good (CCOT gospel of Wealth by Carnegie)
- The Catcher in the Rye
- Beatniks: a model for youth rebellion and advocated drugs and spontaneity
Kennedy’s assassination
- Warren Commission headed by Chief Justice Warren concluded that there was just one assassin
- Conspiracy theories arose
- Loss of credibility in government
8.6 Civil Rights
Origins of the Movement
- Truman est Committee on Civil Rights and ordered the end of racial discrimination in fed gov like the armed forces
- Cold War caused racial segregation to stand out as wrong in America’s reputation of freedom (CCOT WW1 and women’s voting rights)
- NAACP lawyers led by Thurgood Marshall
- Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
- Chief Justice Earl Warren ruled that separate facilities are UNEQUAL unlike Plessy v. Ferguson
- Resistance in South: Southern Manifesto & Rise of KKK
- In Arkansas, Governor used National Guard to stop the Little Rock 9 → Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect them
Nonviolent Protests
- Rosa Parks arrested for not giving up a seat, sparked the Montgomery Bus boycott led by Martin Luther King
- He also formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference/SCLC
- College students started a sit-in movement and John Lewis made Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
8.7 America as a World Power
Unrest from decolonization
- Third World: developing nations compared to Western and Communist bloc
- Eisenhower used covert action because it was less subject to public controversy
- CIA helped overthrow Iran gov that tried to nationalize oil → West got favorable oil prices
- Suez Crisis: led by Nasser, Egypt asked the US for funds to build a dam project and turned to the Soviet Union for help
- British, France, and Israel surprise attacked Egypt and retook the canal
- Eisenhower (kept in the dark) caused them to withdraw
Oil
- Eisenhower Doctrine: pledged economic and military aid to Middle Eastern countries threatened by communism
- Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries/OPEC
- Yom Kippur War: Syrians and Egyptians attacked Isreal to recover lands lost in a six-day war in 1967
- Nixon helped Isreal win
- Arab members of OPEC placed an embargo, causing worldwide oil shortage and even more US runaway in inflation
Peace
- Camp David Accords arranged by President Carter
- Egypt recognized Israel and Israel withdrew troops in land taken from Egypt during the six-day war
- Opposed by Palestine LIberation Org /PLO
- Hostage Crisis: Islamic fundamentalists overthrew Iran's Shah
- Shah escaped to the US (but Iranians wanted his return to stand trial for his crimes), so Iranian militants held US embassy staff members as hostages
- The unsuccessful rescue marked as a failure with Carter
Latin America
- Kennedy est Peace Corps → Young American volunteers would help developing countries
- Alliance for Progress: promoted land reform and economic development in Latin America
- But anti-American feelings due to the Bay of Pigs and CIA ops
- Johnson returned the “Big stick” policy (CCOT TR)
- Carter (humanitarian) negotiated a new Panama Canal treaty to give back to Panamanians
8.8 Vietnam War
Eisenhower
- Geneva Conference divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel
- In the North, Ho Chi Minh and Communist, and in the South, Ngo Dinh Diem
- A general election meant to reunite Vietnam never took place, afraid Communists would win
- Domino theory: if Vietnam fell to communism other Asian Countries would too
- Southeast Asia Treaty Organization/SEATO est by John Foster Dulles
Escalation of war
- Kennedy adopted the domino theory, continued aid to South Vietnam, and increased military “advisers” that trained the army there
- However, Diem was not popular and assassinated
- During the presidential campaign against Johnson, Rep candidate Barry Goldwater attacked Johnson’s administration for its weak support
- South Vietnam was fighting against the Vietcong
- Tonkin Gulf Resolution: caused by an alleged incident of North Vietnamese gunboats firing on US warships
- A blank check for the president to take necessary measures in Vietnam
- Operation rolling thunder: prolonged air attack against N. Vietnam
- Hawks vs Doves
Vietcong Response
- Tet Offensive was an attack on S. Vietnam, and militarily it failed
- However, it demoralized the American public
- Credibility gap: victory was NOT imminent
- Johnson decides to end escalation and announces that he will not be rerunning for president
Election of 1968
- Robert F Kennedy won a major victory in CA’s primary but was assassinated by Arab nationalist
- This led to a three-way between George Wallace, Richard Nixon, and VP Hubert Humphrey
- Democratic Convention selected Humphrey
- George Wallace ran from the American Independent Party and was a result to the white backlash to desegregation
- Nixon won, with VP Spiro Agnew
- Was a hawk and ran on “peace with honor” + “law and order,” it was a backlash against protest, violence, and counterculture
Nixon and Vietnam
- “Vietnamization”: gradually reducing US troops from Vietnam but giving them money and support
- Nixon Doctrine: Asian allies in the future would not have extensive use of US ground forces
- He then invaded Cambodia to destroy Vietnamese Communist bases
- Led to Kent State Protest
- Antiwar sentiment fueled by the My Lai massacre and the publication of The Pentagon Papers
End of the War
- Paris Accords of 1973: promised cease-fire and free elections, but did not end the war between the two
- War powers act: required presidents to report to Congress after military actions, and Congress would have to approve if it is over 60 days
- Fall of Saigon → Communist Vietnam reunified
- Cambodia also fell to Communism, but the domino theory did not necessarily prove true
8.9 The Great Society
The War on Poverty
- Dem: LBJ -→ Liberal agenda
- Rep: Barry Goldwater → Ending welfare + encouraging young conservatives
- Results: LBJ won
- Dems controlled both houses
The Great Society Reforms
- Food Stamp Act (1964): an expanded fed program to help the poor buy food
- National Foundation on the Art and Humanities (1965): Provided fed funding for arts & creative & scholarly projects
- Medicare (1965): Provide health insurance for people 65+
- Medicaid (1965): Provided funds to states to pay for medical care for poor/disabled
- Elementary & Secondary Education Act (1965): Fed funds to poor schools + Special-ed programs+ Expand Head Start (Early childhood education program)
- Higher Education Act (1965): Fed scholarships for post-secondary edu
- Immigration Act (1965): Abolished quotas based on origin
- Child Nutrition Act (1966): Added breakfast to the school lunch program
- Funding for: Mass transit, housing, Rent subsidies for low-income houses, and crime prevention
- Cabinet departments
- Department of Transportation
- Department of Housing and Urban Development
- Regulations on the auto industry
- Clean air/water laws
- Fed parks & wilderness areas expanded
Evaluating the Great Society
- Unrealistic promises to eliminate poverty
- centralized welfare being → costly
- Jeopardized achievements with Vietnam
Changes in Immigration
- Undocumented immigrants → Control Act of 1986
- Great Society included legislation to end discrimination based on race
8.10 The African American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s
The Leadership of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
- “Letter from Birmingham Jail”
- Martin Luther King Jr.: Leader of the civil rights movement
- March on Washinton: 200,000 people + “I have a dream” speech
Federal Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965
- Segregation illegal in all public facilities
- School desegregation
- Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
- Abolished poll tax + literacy tests
Black Muslims and Malcolm X
- Advocated self-defense + fighting with violence
- Malcolm X: assassinated in 1965
Race Riots and Black Power
- Malcolm X was very influential
- Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
- Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
- Riots
- In neighborhoods + worst in LA
- Kerner Commission investigated violence
- De jure → De facto segregation
- Murder in Memphis
- MLK won the Nobel peace prize in 1974
- MLK shot on the balcony in April
- Riots spread like wildfire
8.11 The Civil Right Movement Expands
The Womens Movement
- Betty Freidans Femine Mystique
- Increased Education + Employment
- Equal Pay Act + Civil Rights Act of 1964 poorly enforced
Campaign for Equal Rights Amendment
- Legislative victory
- Equality of rights will not be denied by the US on account of sex
- Missed acceptance by 38 states
Latino Americans
- Cesar Chavez → United Farm Workers Association
- Hispanics elected into office
American Indian Movement
- AIM→ Self-determination + revival of tribes
- Indian Self-Determination Act of 1875: gave reservations and tribal lands greater control over programs
- Red Power movement
Asian American
- The largest group was Chinese + well represented but still earned below the national average
Gay Rights Movement
- Urged homosexuals to open up about identity
- Don’t ask, don’t tell
The Warren Court and Individual Rights
- Brown v. Board of Edu → desegregation of schools
- The emphasis on individual rights
- Criminal Justice
- Mapp v. Ohio: illegally seized evidence can’t be used in court
- Gideon v. Wainwright: required states to prove counsel for defendants
- Escobedo v. Illinois: required police to inform people of the right to remain silent
- Miranda v. Arizona: right to Lawyer during police questioning
- Reapportionment
- States had at least one house of legislature that favored districts that rural> cities
- Baker v. Carr: unconstitutional + redraw election districts
- Freedom of Expression and Privacy
- Greater latitude under 1st Amendment
- Yates v. US: 1st amendment protected
- Engel v. Vitale: required bible prayers violated 1st
- Griswold v. Connecticut: citizens’ right to privacy + state could not prohibit the use of contraceptives
- Controversy + impeachment+ defense of rights of unpopular individuals
8.12 Youth Culture of the 1960s
Baby Boom Generation
- Influenced by the civil rights of Africans and other groups
Student Movement and the New Left
- Student for Democratic Society: called for university decisions to be made through democracy so students have a voice
- Free Speech Movement: demanded an end to university restrictions on student politics
- Students against the Vietnam War
- Campuses disrupted due to anti-war protests
- Violence, vandalism, extremists
- Chicago Convention + Weather Underground
The Counterculture
- Rebellious styles become popular
- Hippies + Folk music + Rock Music + Woodstock music
- Impatience led to violence, destruction, and discredited cause by elders
- Sexual revolution
- Traditional beliefs are challenged through premarital sex + more
- Overly sexual themes blamed on loss of moral codes
8.13 The Environment and Natural Resources From 1968-1980
Origins of Environmental Movement
- Rachel Carson → Silent Spring
- Barry Commoner + Paul Ehrlich
Public Awareness
- 3-mile island incident
- Iil + chemicals + radioactivity a big problem
- Earth Day on April 20
Government Environmental Protection
- Environmental Protection Agency → regulating water and air pollution
- Clean Air and Water → regulated emissions + clean up
- Wildlife protection → Endangered species act
- Oil Embargo and Feul Economy → BIGGEST GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
- Antinuclear Movement → delayed construction of nuclear war plants
- The backlash from conservative groups
8.14 Society in Transition
American Society in Transition
- Racial + ethnic diversity
- Youth revolt
The Nixon Presidency
- Received a popular vote in the election of 1968
- Nixon’s Southern Strategy → appease the South for votes from the South + sun belt
- Election of 1972
- Dem: George McGovern → liberal hero
- Rep: Nixon → foreign policy + George Wallace removal
Watergate Scandal
- Involvement in the 1972 break-in at the Democratic national committee headquarters in the Watergate apartment complex
- Impeachment on the basis of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress
- Trust lost in the government --- leads to the conservative era
Gerald Ford in the White House
- Assumed presidency after scandal
- The pardoning of Nixon instead of prolongation
- Investigating the CIA: Dem Congress searched for abuses in CIA
- Bicentennial Celebration→ 2000 birthday
Election of 1976
- Dem: James Earl Carter
- Rep: Ford
- Results: Carter won
An Outside in the White House
- End to the imperial presidency
- Loss of popularity → National malaise speech
The Burger Court
- More conservative the Warren Court
- Roe v. Wade: struck down state laws prohibiting abortions as a violation of a women’s right to privacy
Conservative Resurgence
- Conservative Religious revival → moral majority + religious fundamentalists
- Deregulation of Businesses + Elimination of Racial Preferences (reverse discrimination through affirmative action
- Regents of Uni of CA v. Bakke: race could be considered but not racial quotas
- Taxpayers revolt: proposition 13 + Arthur Laffer
New Era in Ameican Politics
- Rise of conservatism