Families and Households

Nuclear family (Parsons)

The ideal family structure for industrial society, consisting of two parents and their dependent children, seen as mobile to allow movement for work.

Primary socialisation (Parsons)

The process by which children learn the norms and values of society from their parents, ensuring social order and integration.

Sexual regulation (Murdock, 1949)

Murdock argued the family provides stable satisfaction of the sex drive, preventing social disruption and promiscuity.

Economic functions (Murdock)

Providing economic support for its members, traditionally through the primary male wage earner.

Reproductive functions (Murdock)

The family's essential role in reproducing the next generation of society to ensure its continuation.

Instrumental and expressive roles (Parsons)

Parsons' idea that men perform the instrumental role (breadwinner) and women the expressive role (nurturer) within the family.

Stabilisation of adult personality (Parsons)

The family acts as a 'warm bath' where adults can relax and release tensions from work, thus preventing them from destabilising work and wider society.

Privatised nuclear family (Parsons)

Parsons' idea that the nuclear family is isolated from extended kin and the wider community, focusing on its own needs and private life.

Social and geographical mobility (Parsons)

The nuclear family's smaller size and relative independence make it easier to move for work, promoting industrial efficiency.

March of progress (Young and Willmott)

The idea, particularly by Young and Willmott, that the family has improved over time, becoming more democratic and symmetrical.

Symmetrical family (Young and Willmott)

Young and Willmott's concept of a family where roles are less segregated, with both partners sharing domestic work, childcare, and leisure time.

Welfare dependency (Murray)

Murray's argument that the welfare state encourages single parenthood and creates a 'dependency culture' among the poor.

Underclass (Murray)

Murray's concept of a group at the bottom of society characterized by welfare dependency, criminality, and inadequate socialisation, primarily due to non-nuclear family structures.

Conservative social policies (Murray)

Advocates for policies that support traditional nuclear families, such as tax breaks for married couples and cuts to welfare for single mothers, aligning with the views of Murray.

Primitive communism (Engels)

Engels argued that in early, pre-class societies, there was no private property, and families were communal and promiscuous, with no need for monogamy.

Exploitation (Zaretsky, Engels)

The family exploits women's unpaid labour (domestic work, childcare) which is crucial for maintaining and reproducing the workforce for capitalism.

Alienation (Zaretsky)

Capitalism alienates workers; the family can provide a 'safe haven' (Zaretsky) from this, but it also reproduces capitalist ideology and consumption patterns.

Commodification (Marxist view)

The family functions as a unit of consumption within capitalism, purchasing goods and services that generate profit for the bourgeoisie.

Inheritance (Engels)

Engels' argument that the family's primary function under capitalism is to ensure the legitimate inheritance of private property, which led to the rise of monogamous marriage.

Safe haven (Zaretsky)

The family serves as a place where individuals can escape the alienation and exploitation of the capitalist workplace.

Pester power (Marxist view)

Children's influence on parents' purchasing decisions, which reinforces consumerism and benefits capitalist industries.

Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) (Althusser)

The family, as an ISA according to Althusser, transmits the dominant ideology of the ruling class, teaching children to accept hierarchy and inequality.

Policing the family (Donzelot)

Donzelot (drawing on Foucault) argued that state professionals 'police' families, particularly working-class ones, to ensure they conform to dominant norms.

Dominant ideology (Marxist view)

The belief systems that serve the interests of the ruling class, which Marxists see the family as a key institution for reproducing and transmitting across generations.

Reproducing workforce (Marxist view)

The family reproduces the labour power necessary for capitalism, both biologically (new workers) and through daily sustenance and socialisation.

Liberal feminism (Somerville, Oakley)

Focuses on achieving equality for women through legal reforms and policy changes (e.g., Equal Pay Act).

Radical feminism (Greer, Delphy and Leonard)

Sees patriarchy as the fundamental cause of women's oppression, advocating for separatism, political lesbianism, or abolishing the family.

Marxist feminism (Benston, Ansley)

Argues that women's oppression serves the needs of capitalism, e.g., women as a 'reserve army of labour,' providing unpaid domestic work.

Intersectional feminism

Recognises that women's experiences of oppression are shaped by multiple intersecting factors like class, ethnicity, sexuality, and disability, not just by gender alone.

Patriarchy (Feminist view)

A system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women. Feminists see the family as a key institution for maintaining patriarchy.

Division of domestic labour (Oakley)

The unequal distribution of housework and childcare between men and women. Oakley famously criticised the idea of the 'symmetrical family'.

Dual burden (Marsden)

The situation where women perform both paid work outside the home and the majority of unpaid domestic labour and childcare within the home.

Triple shift (Duncombe and Marsden)

Duncombe and Marsden's concept, expanding on the dual burden, to include women's responsibility for paid work, domestic labour, and emotional labour.

Reserve army of labour (Benston)

Marxist feminist idea that women are used as a flexible, cheap labour force, easily recruited in economic booms and dismissed in recessions, returning to their domestic roles.

Power relationships (Delphy and Leonard, Dobash and Dobash)

Feminists highlight unequal power dynamics within the family (e.g., in decision-making, financial control, or vulnerability to domestic violence).

Emotional labour (Hochschild, Duncombe & Marsden)

The work of managing emotions, both one's own and others', within the family to maintain harmony and well-being, often disproportionately performed by women.

Domestic violence (Dobash and Dobash)

Acts of violence or abuse within the family, predominantly perpetrated by men against women, extensively researched by Dobash and Dobash.

Patriarchal control (Delphy and Leonard)

Men's systemic control over women within marriage and family. Delphy and Leonard argue men benefit from women's unpaid labour and services.

Decision-making (Pahl, Vogler et al.)

Studies show that men often still make major financial decisions or have the final say in important family matters (Pahl, though research by Vogler et al. indicates shifting patterns).

Family diversity (Rapoport and Rapoport, Cheal)

The central idea that there is no single dominant family type; instead, a variety of forms exist (e.g., single-parent, cohabiting, same-sex, reconstituted families).

Isolated nuclear family (Giddens)

Giddens argues that in late modernity, individuals are less bound by tradition, leading to more individualised and potentially isolated family choices.

Romantic love (Giddens)

The traditional ideal of love based on a lifelong, exclusive commitment, argued by Giddens to have been superseded by confluent love.

Confluent love (Giddens)

Giddens' concept of active, contingent love, which is entered into and maintained only as long as it satisfies both partners. It is fluid, relationship-specific, and not necessarily permanent.

Pure relationship (Giddens)

Giddens' idea that relationships are based on trust, open communication, and emotional intimacy, existing only as long as they meet the needs of both partners, not bound by external sanctions.

Reflexivity (Giddens, Beck)

The ability of individuals to constantly reflect on, monitor, and modify their social actions, identities, and relationships.

Plastic sexuality (Giddens)

Giddens' idea that sex has become disconnected from reproduction, allowing for more diverse sexual practices and relationships based on pleasure and intimacy rather than procreation.

Individualisation thesis (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, Bauman)

Beck and Beck-Gernsheim's argument that individuals are increasingly free from traditional social structures and expectations, leading to more individualised life choices.

Divorce-extended family (Stacey)

Stacey's concept of new family forms created by divorce, where ex-spouses, their new partners, children, and even members of new partners' families form complex, often supportive, networks.

Secularisation (Weeks)

The decline in religious belief and practice. This weakens religious moral injunctions against cohabitation, divorce, and non-marital childbearing, contributing to greater diversity.

Life expectancy (Hirsch)

Increased longevity means individuals live longer lives, leading to longer relationships but also increased likelihood of 'grey divorce' or new relationships later in life, an issue for Hirsch's ageing population.

Conventional family (Parsons)

Traditionally, the heterosexual nuclear family with a male breadwinner and a female homemaker, seen as the norm in industrial society.

Nuclear family (Chester)

Still a common aspirational model, but its form is more diverse (e.g., the 'neo-conventional family' as a dual-earner nuclear family, a term used by Chester).

Lone parent families (Murray, New Right)

An increase in single-parent families, primarily due to divorce, separation, or intentional choice. Often matrifocal (female-headed). Murray (New Right) offers critiques.

Lone person households (Chambers, Morgan)

The increasing number of individuals living alone, attributed to factors like individualism, delayed marriage, divorce, and longer life expectancy for older individuals.

Reconstituted/blended families (Stacey)

Stepfamilies formed after divorce or separation when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new partnership, discussed as part of Stacey's 'divorce-extended family'.

Cohabitation (Weeks)

Couples living together in a sexual relationship without being married. It has increased significantly as both a precursor to marriage and as an alternative to marriage.

Dual worker families (Oakley)

Families where both partners engage in paid employment. This has become the norm, but implications for gender roles are explored by Oakley.

Same-sex families (Weeks, Giddens)

Families formed by same-sex couples, including those with children, challenging heteronormativity and expanding definitions of family.

Beanpole families (Brannen)

Multi-generational but 'thin' vertically (few members in each generation) due to lower birth rates and increased life expectancy, characterised by strong vertical ties but fewer horizontal ones.

Divorce reforms (Fletcher, Murray)

Legal changes making divorce easier (e.g., Divorce Reform Act 1969). Fletcher (functionalist) viewed this as a positive adaptation, while Murray (New Right) raised concerns.

Organisational diversity (Rapoport and Rapoport)

Differences in how families are structured (e.g., nuclear, extended, lone-parent, reconstituted, same-sex).

Cultural diversity (Rapoport and Rapoport, Bhatti, Modood)

Differences in family structure, roles, and values due to ethnicity and religion (e.g., higher rates of extended families in some Asian communities or importance of kin in African Caribbean families).

Cohort diversity (Rapoport and Rapoport)

Differences in family patterns between different generations due to historical changes (e.g., how Baby Boomers experienced family versus Generation Z).

Life cycle/Life course diversity (Rapoport and Rapoport, Smart)

Individuals experience different family structures over their lives (e.g., single, cohabiting, married, divorced, remarried, lone parent).

Social class diversity (Chambers, Reynolds, CPAG)

Differences in family forms, experiences, and resources based on social class, highlighting how inequality persists (CPAG).

Living apart together (LATs) (Levin, Trost, Chambers)

Couples who are in a committed relationship but live in separate households, illustrating increasing individualisation and changing expectations of relationships.

Chosen families (Weston, Weeks, Smart)

Individuals forming family-like bonds, support networks, and emotional intimacy with non-kin, often seen in LGBTQ+ communities and among friends.

Matrifocal families (Bhatti, Barrow)

Families headed by a mother, with children but no resident father. Common in some ethnic groups or as a result of divorce/separation.

Visiting relationships

Parents, often fathers, maintain involvement with children while living separately, sometimes maintaining a sexual relationship with the mother without cohabiting.

Neo-conventional family (Chester)

The dominant family type where both spouses work (often with the wife working part-time), but they still retain traditional gender roles within the home to some extent, less distinct from traditional nuclear family than radicals suggest.

Connectedness thesis (Smart)

Smart's alternative to the individualisation thesis. Argues that individuals are deeply embedded in networks of relationships (e.g., family, friends, community) which shape their choices and identities.

Loss of functionality (Parsons, Fletcher)

The idea that the family has lost many of its traditional functions (e.g., economic production, education) to other specialised institutions (e.g., factories, schools, the welfare state).

Joint and segregated conjugal roles (Bott)

Bott's classification: segregated roles see couples with a clear division of labour and separate leisure activities; joint roles see sharing of tasks and leisure time.

Gender pay gap (Oakley)

The difference in average earnings between men and women, with women typically earning less, highlighted by feminists like Oakley as a structural inequality.

Childcare (Oakley)

The responsibility for raising and caring for children. Despite changes, childcare responsibilities still fall disproportionately on mothers, impacting their career progression and leisure time, as Oakley noted.

Pooling of resources (Pahl, Vogler et al.)

Where both partners share financial resources (e.g., joint bank accounts) rather than maintaining separate finances or an allowance system. While pooling can indicate more equality, Pahl's research showed control over resources may not be equally shared (Vogler et al. show increasing pooling).

Gender scripts

Societal norms and expectations about how men and women 'should' behave, feel, and think, including within relationships and family roles.

Lagged adaptation (Gershuny)

Gershuny's idea that women's entry into paid employment has been faster than men's increased participation and responsibility in domestic labour.

Changing masculinities

The emergence of new forms of masculinity (e.g., the 'new man') that are more emotional, caring, and involved in childcare and domestic work.

New man

An idealised image of a man who is more empathetic, communicative, and actively shares domestic and childcare responsibilities within the family.

Social construction of childhood (Aries, Wagg)

Childhood is not a natural, biological stage but a concept created and defined by societies and cultures, varying across time and place.

Childhood and innocence (Palmer)

The modern Western view of children as inherently vulnerable, innocent, and needing protection and a prolonged period of dependence, but Palmer warns of potential 'toxic childhood'.

Cultural variations of childhood (Wagg, Pilcher)

Childhood experiences differ significantly across cultures, with variations in age of responsibility, children's work roles, and levels of adult authority.

Age patriarchy (Gittins)

Gittins' concept describing the domination and oppression of children by adults, limiting children's freedom and autonomy through rules, surveillance, and control over resources.

Modern childhood and child-centredness (Jenks)

Society increasingly focuses on the child's needs, well-being, and development, investing heavily in them emotionally and financially.

Impacts of social policy on childhood (Donzelot)

Policies related to education, welfare, child protection, and health have significantly shaped childhood experiences, with Donzelot's 'policing the family' being a relevant concept.

Social class differences in childhood experience (CPAG, Brannen, Mayall)

Significant variations in childhood experiences linked to social class, including access to resources, opportunities, health outcomes, and parenting styles (CPAG).

Gender differences in childhood experience (Oakley)

Boys and girls are often socialised differently, face different expectations, and encounter different risks and opportunities within their childhoods, as highlighted by Oakley.

Ethnic differences in childhood (Bhatti, Womack)

Variations in family structure, child-rearing practices, community support, and experiences of discrimination based on ethnicity (e.g., extended family support in some Asian/African Caribbean groups, or experiencing racism).

Toxic childhood (Palmer)

Palmer's idea that rapid technological and cultural changes (e.g., junk food, excessive screen time, academic pressure, erosion of outdoor play) are harming children's physical and mental development.

Disappearance of childhood (Postman)

Postman's argument that the clear distinction between childhood and adulthood is blurring, primarily due to media (especially television) exposing children to adult themes and the decline of print culture.

Creation of NHS (1948)

Provided free healthcare for all, significantly improving public health, child and maternal mortality rates, and overall family well-being.

Beveridge Report/Welfare state (1942/1948)

Established a system of social security, child benefits, and other provisions, creating a safety net for families against the 'five giants' of want, disease, ignorance, squalor, and idleness. Critiqued by Murray for creating dependency.

Divorce Reform Act (1969)

Made divorce much easier by introducing 'irretrievable breakdown' as the sole ground, rather than requiring proof of fault. Fletcher saw this as a positive adaptation.

Family Planning Act (1967)

Expanded access to contraception through the NHS. Feminists like Greer would see this as enhancing women's autonomy.

Legalisation of Abortion (1967)

Allowed abortion under certain circumstances, with major implications for women's bodily autonomy, praised by feminists like Greer.

Equal Pay Act (1970)

Made it illegal to pay men and women differently for the same or broadly similar work. A key demand of liberal feminists like Oakley.

Sex Discrimination Act (1975)

Made discrimination based on sex unlawful in employment, training, education, and the provision of goods, facilities, and services. Supported by liberal feminists.

Marital rape clause removed (1991)

Criminalised rape within marriage, overturning a historical legal exemption. A monumental change for feminists like Dobash and Dobash.

Section 28 (1988-2003)

Prohibited local authorities from 'promoting homosexuality' or teaching its acceptability as a 'pretended family relationship'. Criticised by Giddens.