Rousseau Discours sur l'inégalité

Flashcard 1: The Two Species of Inequality

Argument Summary: Rousseau opens by distinguishing between two types of inequality. Natural or physical inequality (differences in age, health, and strength) is established by nature and is not the subject of his inquiry. His focus is moral or political inequality, which consists of privileges some enjoy to the detriment of others, such as wealth, honor, and power. He argues that this second type is purely conventional and authorized by human consent, rather than natural law. By separating these, he clears the ground to prove that social inequality is not an inevitable reflection of natural differences. Keywords/Ideas: Inégalité naturelle vs. morale, convention, privilèges, consentement. French Quotes:

1. "Je conçois dans l'espèce humaine deux sortes d'inégalité ; l'une que j'appelle naturelle ou physique... l'autre qu'on peut appeler inégalité morale, ou politique." (p. 20)

2. "Celle-ci consiste dans les différents privilèges, dont quelques-uns jouissent, au préjudice des autres." (p. 20)

3. "[L'inégalité morale] dépend d'une sorte de convention, et qu'elle est établie, ou du moins autorisée par le consentement des hommes." (p. 20)

Flashcard 2: Critique of Previous Philosophers

Argument Summary: Rousseau criticizes previous "State of Nature" theorists (like Hobbes and Locke) for failing to actually reach the natural state. He argues they committed a fundamental methodological error: they projected socially acquired traits—such as greed, pride, and the concept of property—back onto primitive humans. They "spoke of savage man and depicted civil man," assuming that human nature is static. Rousseau insists we must strip away all social additions to find the "statue of Glaucus" beneath the grime of civilization. Keywords/Ideas: Erreur méthodologique, homme civil vs. homme sauvage, projection sociale. French Quotes:

1. "Les philosophes qui ont examiné les fondements de la société ont tous senti la nécessité de remonter jusqu'à l'état de nature, mais aucun d'eux n'y est arrivé." (p. 20)

2. "Ils parlaient de l'homme sauvage, et ils peignaient l'homme civil." (p. 21)

3. "Tous... ont transporté à l'état de nature des idées qu'ils avaient prises dans la société." (p. 20)

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Flashcard 2: Critique of Previous Philosophers

Argument Summary: Rousseau criticizes previous "State of Nature" theorists (like Hobbes and Locke) for failing to actually reach the natural state. He argues they committed a fundamental methodological error: they projected socially acquired traits—such as greed, pride, and the concept of property—back onto primitive humans. They "spoke of savage man and depicted civil man," assuming that human nature is static. Rousseau insists we must strip away all social additions to find the "statue of Glaucus" beneath the grime of civilization. Keywords/Ideas: Erreur méthodologique, homme civil vs. homme sauvage, projection sociale. French Quotes:

1. "Les philosophes qui ont examiné les fondements de la société ont tous senti la nécessité de remonter jusqu'à l'état de nature, mais aucun d'eux n'y est arrivé." (p. 20)

2. "Ils parlaient de l'homme sauvage, et ils peignaient l'homme civil." (p. 21)

3. "Tous... ont transporté à l'état de nature des idées qu'ils avaient prises dans la société." (p. 20)

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Flashcard 3: The Physical State of Savage Man

Argument Summary: In the pure state of nature, man is essentially a "robust animal." He is solitary, self-sufficient, and perfectly adapted to his environment. His body is his only instrument, making him stronger and more agile than civilized man, who has become dependent on machines and luxury. Because he has no industry, no speech, and no permanent home, he has no need for his fellows. His desires do not exceed his physical needs (food, a mate, sleep), and he is untroubled by the "feverish" anxieties of the future. Keywords/Ideas: Autosuffisance, instrument unique, besoins physiques, robustesse. French Quotes:

1. "Le corps de l'homme sauvage étant le seul instrument qu'il connaisse, il l'emploie à divers usages." (p. 23)

2. "Je le vois se rassasiant sous un chêne, se désaltérant au premier ruisseau, trouvant son lit au pied du même arbre." (p. 22)

3. "Ses désirs ne passent pas ses besoins physiques ; les seuls biens, qu'il connaisse dans l'univers sont la nourriture, une femelle et le repos." (p. 28)

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Flashcard 3: The Physical State of Savage Man

Argument Summary: In the pure state of nature, man is essentially a "robust animal." He is solitary, self-sufficient, and perfectly adapted to his environment. His body is his only instrument, making him stronger and more agile than civilized man, who has become dependent on machines and luxury. Because he has no industry, no speech, and no permanent home, he has no need for his fellows. His desires do not exceed his physical needs (food, a mate, sleep), and he is untroubled by the "feverish" anxieties of the future. Keywords/Ideas: Autosuffisance, instrument unique, besoins physiques, robustesse. French Quotes:

1. "Le corps de l'homme sauvage étant le seul instrument qu'il connaisse, il l'emploie à divers usages." (p. 23)

2. "Je le vois se rassasiant sous un chêne, se désaltérant au premier ruisseau, trouvant son lit au pied du même arbre." (p. 22)

3. "Ses désirs ne passent pas ses besoins physiques ; les seuls biens, qu'il connaisse dans l'univers sont la nourriture, une femelle et le repos." (p. 28)

Flashcard 4: Perfectibility — The Source of Progress and Misery

Argument Summary: Rousseau identifies perfectibility (la perfectibilité) as the specific quality that distinguishes humans from animals. While an animal is governed by instinct and remains the same throughout its life, humans have an almost unlimited faculty to learn and adapt. Paradoxically, Rousseau calls this the "source of all human misfortunes." It is this faculty that eventually pulls humans out of their tranquil natural state, leading to the development of reason and language, which in turn fuels the passions that cause inequality. Keywords/Ideas: La perfectibilité, agent libre, source des malheurs, instinct vs. choix. French Quotes:

1. "...la faculté de se perfectionner ; faculté qui, à l'aide des circonstances, développe successivement toutes les autres." (p. 27)

2. "Il serait triste pour nous d'être forcés de convenir que cette faculté distinctive... est la source de tous les malheurs de l'homme." (p. 27)

3. "L'homme se reconnaît libre d'acquiescer, ou de résister [à la nature]." (p. 27)

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Flashcard 5: The Two Natural Principles: Amour de Soi and Pitié

Argument Summary: Rousseau argues that human behavior is guided by two principles prior to reason. First is amour de soi (self-love), a natural interest in one’s own preservation. Second is pity (la pitié), an innate repugnance at seeing any sentient being suffer. Pity serves as the "law" in the state of nature, moderating self-love and preventing unnecessary violence. Unlike Hobbes, who sees man as naturally wicked, Rousseau sees man as naturally "good" simply because pity prevents him from doing harm when his own survival is not at stake. Keywords/Ideas: Amour de soi, pitié naturelle, répugnance au souffrir, pré-rationnel. French Quotes:

1. "...deux principes antérieurs à la raison... l'un nous intéresse ardemment à notre bien-être... et l'autre nous inspire une répugnance naturelle à voir périr ou souffrir tout être sensible." (p. 16)

2. "C'est elle [la pitié] qui, dans l'état de nature, tient lieu de lois, de mœurs, et de vertu." (p. 37)

3. "Fais ton bien avec le moindre mal d'autrui qu'il est possible." (p. 37)

Flashcard 6: The Barrier of Language

Argument Summary: Rousseau highlights the massive difficulty of inventing language to show how unlikely it was for humans to leave the state of nature. If men needed speech to learn how to think, they needed to know how to think to invent speech. This circular paradox proves that nature did not prepare man for social life. In the state of nature, the "cry of nature" sufficed for emergencies, but constant communication was unnecessary because humans were dispersed and had no mutual dependence. Keywords/Ideas: Origine des langues, paradoxe de la pensée, cri de la nature, asocialité naturelle. French Quotes:

1. "...si les hommes ont eu besoin de la parole pour apprendre à penser, ils ont eu bien plus besoin encore de savoir penser pour trouver l'art de la parole." (p. 31)

2. "...combien elle [la nature] a peu préparé leur sociabilité." (p. 34)

3. "Le premier langage de l'homme... est le cri de la nature." (p. 31)

Flashcard 7: The "First Revolution" and Nascent Society

Argument Summary: As populations grow and environmental "accidents" (like floods or volcanoes) force humans to interact, they undergo a "first revolution." They build huts and live in families, creating the first social bonds. This leads to "nascent society," which Rousseau describes as the "happiest and most durable epoch." Here, humans enjoy a "golden mean" between brute isolation and modern corruption. However, this proximity also begins to awaken amour-propre (vanity/pride), as people begin to compare themselves and seek public esteem. Keywords/Ideas: Première révolution, habitation commune, famille, amour conjugal, âge d'or. French Quotes:

1. "Ce fut là l'époque d'une première révolution qui forma l'établissement et la distinction des familles." (p. 46)

2. "L'exemple des sauvages... semble confirmer que le genre humain était fait pour y rester toujours." (p. 48)

3. "Chacun commença à regarder les autres et à vouloir être regardé soi-même, et l'estime publique eut un prix." (p. 47)

Flashcard 8: Amour de Soi vs. Amour-Propre

Argument Summary: A key psychological shift occurs as society forms. Amour de soi is a healthy, natural self-love centered on survival. Amour-propre is a relative, artificial sentiment born of social comparison. It forces individuals to value themselves based on the opinions of others, leading to competition, vanity, and the desire for superiority. This shift is the psychological engine of inequality: man, formerly "living within himself," begins to "live outside himself," dependent on the judgment of his fellows. Keywords/Ideas: Amour-propre vs. amour de soi, comparaison, vanité, opinion d'autrui. French Quotes:

1. "Il ne faut pas confondre l'amour-propre et l'amour de soi-même." (p. 90, Note 15)

2. "L'amour-propre n'est qu'un sentiment relatif, factice et né dans la société." (p. 91, Note 15)

3. "Le sauvage vit en lui-même ; l'homme sociable toujours hors de lui ne sait vivre que dans l'opinion des autres." (p. 64)

Flashcard 9: The Second Revolution: Metallurgy and Agriculture

Argument Summary: The transition to civilization was finalized by the invention of iron and wheat (metallurgy and agriculture). These arts required a division of labor, making one man dependent on the help of another. Agriculture necessitated the partition of land, which is the origin of property. For Rousseau, these two inventions "civilized men and ruined the human race," because they destroyed human independence and created a situation where Provisions for two were stored by one. Keywords/Ideas: Fer et blé, division du travail, dépendance mutuelle, ruine de l'espèce. French Quotes:

1. "...pour le philosophe ce sont le fer et le blé qui ont civilisé les hommes et perdu le genre humain." (p. 49)

2. "Dès l'instant qu'un homme eut besoin du secours d'un autre... l'égalité disparut, la propriété s'introduisit." (p. 49)

3. "L'invention des autres arts fut donc nécessaire pour forcer le genre humain de s'appliquer à celui de l'agriculture." (p. 50)

Flashcard 10: The Foundation of Civil Society (Property)

Argument Summary: Rousseau famously identifies the true founder of civil society as the first man who enclosed a piece of land and said, "This is mine," and found people simple enough to believe him. Property is the "final term" of the state of nature, but it was not formed all at once. It required a long series of cognitive and social developments. Once property is established, natural inequalities (strength, skill) transform into permanent, cumulative wealth gaps, leading to the "destruction of equality." Keywords/Ideas: Propriété privée, fondateur de la société civile, "Ceci est à moi", aliénation. French Quotes:

1. "Le premier qui, ayant enclos un terrain, s'avisa de dire : Ceci est à moi... fut le vrai fondateur de la société civile." (p. 43)

2. "...cette idée de propriété... ne se forma pas tout d'un coup dans l'esprit humain." (p. 43)

3. "Que de crimes, de guerres, de meurtres... n'eût point épargnés au genre humain celui qui... eût crié : ...la terre n'est à personne." (p. 43)

Flashcard 11: The State of War (The Corrupted State)

Argument Summary: Contrary to Hobbes, Rousseau argues that the "State of War" occurs after the birth of society and property, not before. The gap between rich and poor creates a "horrible state of war" marked by the "usurpations of the rich" and the "brigandage of the poor." The rich, having more to lose (their property), live in constant fear of the combined force of the poor. This state of universal conflict makes the establishment of a formal government necessary for the rich to secure their gains. Keywords/Ideas: État de guerre social, usurpation, brigandage, insécurité des riches. French Quotes:

1. "L'égalité rompue fut suivie du plus affreux désordre." (p. 52)

2. "La société naissante fit place au plus horrible état de guerre." (p. 52)

3. "Le riche, pressé par la nécessité, conçut enfin le projet le plus réfléchi... d'employer en sa faveur les forces mêmes de ceux qui l'attaquaient." (p. 53)

Flashcard 12: The "Faked" Social Contract

Argument Summary: Rousseau describes the origin of the state as a deceptive trick played by the rich on the poor. The rich man proposes a "union" to protect the weak from oppression and secure for everyone what belongs to them. The poor, "easy to seduce" and lacking political experience, "run toward their chains" believing they are securing their liberty. This contract turns "clever usurpation into an irrevocable right," permanently fixing the laws of property and inequality. Keywords/Ideas: Contrat trompeur, usurpation adroite, fers de la liberté, protection factice. French Quotes:

1. "Tous coururent au-devant de leurs fers croyant assurer leur liberté." (p. 54)

2. "[Le contrat] fixa pour jamais la loi de la propriété et de l'inégalité, d'une adroite usurpation fit un droit irrévocable." (p. 54)

3. "Telle fut... l'origine de la société et des lois, qui donnèrent de nouvelles entraves au faible et de nouvelles forces au riche." (p. 54)

lashcard 13: The Three Stages of Political Inequality

Argument Summary: Rousseau outlines the historical progress of political inequality through three distinct stages of institutionalization. First, the establishment of the law and the right of property authorizes the status of rich and poor. Second, the institution of the magistracy authorizes the status of powerful and weak. Third, the transformation of legitimate power into arbitrary power authorizes the status of master and slave. This last stage is the "ultimate degree" of inequality. Keywords/Ideas: Progrès de l'inégalité, riche/pauvre, puissant/faible, maître/esclave. French Quotes:

1. "L'établissement de la loi et du droit de propriété fut son premier terme ; l'institution de la magistrature le second..." (p. 60)

2. "...le troisième et dernier fut le changement du pouvoir légitime en pouvoir arbitraire." (p. 60)

3. "L'état de riche et de pauvre fut autorisé par la première époque, celui de puissant et de faible par la seconde, et par la troisième celui de maître et d'esclave." (p. 60)

Flashcard 14: Despotism: The Circle Closes

Argument Summary: In the final stage of political decay, Despotism raises its "hideous head." All laws are trampled, and the tyrant’s whim becomes the only rule. Rousseau argues that this brings humans back to a "new State of Nature," but one that is corrupted rather than pure. In this state, everyone becomes equal again—but only because they are all nothing in the face of the despot. The social contract is dissolved, and power returns to the law of the strongest. Keywords/Ideas: Despotisme, cercle de l'inégalité, égalité de néant, retour à la force. French Quotes:

1. "C'est ici le dernier terme de l'inégalité, et le point extrême qui ferme le cercle et touche au point d'où nous sommes partis." (p. 63)

2. "C'est ici que tous les particuliers redeviennent égaux parce qu'ils ne sont rien." (p. 63)

3. "La seule force le maintenait, la seule force le renverse." (p. 64)

Flashcard 15: Conclusion: The Unnaturalness of Modern Inequality

Argument Summary: Rousseau concludes that moral inequality is only legitimate if it is proportional to physical inequality. However, in modern "civilized" nations, this is almost never the case. He ends with a scathing critique of a society where a child commands an old man, or a few people wallow in luxury while the multitude lacks the barest necessities. This condition is not authorized by Natural Law, making modern civilization fundamentally illegitimate and contrary to human nature. Keywords/Ideas: Illégitimité, loi de nature, disproportion, critique de la civilisation. French Quotes:

1. "L'inégalité morale... est contraire au droit naturel, toutes les fois qu'elle ne concourt pas en même proportion avec l'inégalité physique." (p. 65)

2. "...il est manifestement contre la loi de nature... qu'une poignée de gens regorge de superfluités, tandis que la multitude affamée manque du nécessaire." (p. 65)

3. "L'inégalité, étant presque nulle dans l'état de nature, tire sa force et son accroissement du développement de nos facultés." (p. 65)