Memory

automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as the meaning of words. It doesn't need to be rehearsed.

effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Like learning through a book or a video. We boost memory through rehearsal (conscious repetition of information).

encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system by extracting meaning and converting it into a form that can be stored.

visual encoding

Encoding of picture images or visual information into memory.

acoustic encoding

Encoding of sound, especially the sound of words, into memory.

semantic encoding

Encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words, into memory.

storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time in the memory system.

retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness.

recall

A measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information previously learned. Fill in the blank. Use of effort to pull out information on your own.

recognition

A measure of memory where a person only needs to identify previously learned items. MC test.

relearning

Measure of learning that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. It takes half the time to relearn information.

shallow processing

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

deep processing

Encoding on a meaningful level. Involves forming an association or attaching meaning to a sensory impression and results in longer lasting memories.

sensory memory

Initial, momentary storage of information. Lasts only an instant.

iconic memory

Momentary memory of visual stimuli.

echoic memory

Momentary memory of auditory stimuli.

short-term memory

Memory that holds meaningful info for a short period of time, usually less than thirty seconds. Has a limited capacity of seven plus or minus two items. Info will leave if not rehearsed.

working memory

A newer understanding of short term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and of information retrieved from long term memory.

central executive

A memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and the visual sketchpad.

phonological loop

A memory component that temporarily holds auditory information.

visuospatial sketchpad

A memory component that briefly holds information about object's appearance and location in space.

long-term memory

Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. Has unlimited capacity.

episodic memory

Memory of biographical details of our individual lives or an episode of your life.

procedural memory

Memory for how to perform tasks, skills, and actions. Often called muscle memory.

flashbulb memory

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

explicit/declarative memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Includes episodic and semantic memory.

implicit/nondeclarative memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. Includes procedural memory.

state-dependent memory

Condition in which memory of a past event is improved when the person is in the same biological state they were in when the memory was formed.

mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

spacing effect

The tendency for distributed practice or study to yield better long term retention than what is achieved through crammed practice.

testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than just rereading, information.

serial position effect

Our tendency to best recall the first and last items in a list.

recency effect

The last items in a list are still in our memory and we can recall them.

primacy effect

When our recall is best for the first items in a list.

context effect

The enhanced ability to retrieve information when in the same context or environment in which it was encoded.

memory trace

A physical change in the brain that represents a stored memory. Also called an engram.

long-term potentiation

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

stress hormones

Hormones released during stress that can enhance memory consolidation, especially for emotionally arousing events.

amygdala

Brain structure involved in processing emotions and emotional memories, particularly fear and emotionally charged events.

hippocampus

Brain structure that encodes and transfers new information to other brain regions for storage. Critical for forming new explicit memories.

cerebellum

Brain structure involved in memories involving motor or movement function. Important for procedural memory.

basal ganglia

Deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills.

sleep and memory

Sleep plays a critical role in memory consolidation, helping to strengthen and stabilize memories formed during the day.

priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations with memory. Providing cues to stimulate memories without awareness of the connection.

mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

acronyms

Chunking information into a more familiar form by creating a word from the first letters of items you need to remember.

hierarchies

Memory organizational system composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts.

peg-word system

Mnemonic device that requires memorizing a jingle then associating that jingle with a list of items. Example: Seven is heaven.

encoding failure

Not remembering what we didn't encode. Happens when poorly encoded information is passed from STM to LTM.

storage decay

The poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. This is not deletion of a memory.

retrieval failure

When information stored in LTM is available but momentarily not accessible. Failure to recall information in the absence of memory cues.

forgetting curve

Initial large drop in retention of information that evens out over time. Shows gradual fading of the memory trace in the brain.

proactive interference

When something you learned earlier disrupts your recall of something you experience later. Old information interferes with new.

retroactive interference

When new information makes it difficult to recall something you learned earlier. New information interferes with old.

repression

The basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. Our brains like complete pictures so they fill in gaps.

déjà vu

Eerie sense that you've experienced something before. Cues from current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

source amnesia

Attributing an event to the wrong source we have experienced, heard, read, or imagined. Also called source misattribution.

false memory syndrome

A condition in which a person's identity and relationships are affected by memories that are factually incorrect but strongly believed.

Herman Ebbinghaus

German psychologist who pioneered the study of memory. Created the forgetting curve showing initial rapid memory decay.

Atkinson and Shiffrin

Psychologists who proposed the three-stage model of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Elizabeth Loftus

American psychologist renowned for research on memory distortion and the misinformation effect. Car accident study with smashed vs hit.

Karl Lashley

Psychologist who conducted rat lesion studies searching for the location of memory traces in the brain.