AP Psychology Definitions unit 0 (2025)

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering key AP Psychology terms from the lecture notes.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you would have foreseen or predicted it; the 'I knew it all along' effect.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Overconfidence

An excessive belief in one's own abilities or knowledge, even when unjustified, leading to overestimations in judgment.

Peer Review

The process by which research is evaluated by experts in the field before publication to ensure quality, validity, and credibility.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable

A characteristic of a hypothesis or theory that it can be proven wrong through empirical testing or evidence.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated in a study, making them observable and replicable.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to determine whether the original findings can be consistently reproduced.

Case Study

An in-depth, detailed examination of a single individual or small group, often used to explore rare or complex phenomena.

Meta-Analysis

A method that statistically combines the results of multiple studies to draw broader conclusions; considered non-experimental.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without interference, prioritizing ecological validity over experimental control.

Survey

A research method involving the collection of responses from a large sample via questionnaires or interviews to gather self-reported data.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency for respondents to answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others, potentially distorting results.

Self-Report Bias

When participants inaccurately report their own behaviors, attitudes, or experiences, often due to memory errors or selective presentation.

Experimenter Bias

A specific form of bias where researchers unintentionally influence study participants or data in order to confirm their hypothesis.

Population

The complete set of individuals or cases in which a researcher is interested for a given study.

Sample

The subset of the population selected for actual participation in a study.

Sampling Bias

A distortion in research results caused when the sample is not representative of the broader population.

Random Sample

When every individual in the population has an equal chance of being included in the study, reducing sampling bias.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants who are easily accessible, which can lead to unrepresentative samples and biased results.

Experimental Methodology

Research that involves manipulating one or more independent variables and using random assignment to determine causal effects.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity) of the broader population.

Non-Experimental Methodology

Research methods that do not involve manipulation or control, such as case study, correlation, meta-analysis, and naturalistic observation.

Correlation

A non-experimental method that assesses the relationship between two variables without implying causation.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure (commonly r value) that quantifies the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables.

Variable

Any factor, trait, or condition that can vary or take on different values within a study.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when none actually exists.

Directionality Problem

When two variables are correlated, it may be unclear which one is the cause and which one is the effect in the absence of manipulation.

Regression Toward the Mean

The statistical tendency for extreme scores or behaviors to move closer to the average upon retesting or over time.

Experiment

A controlled scientific procedure designed to test a hypothesis by manipulating independent variables and observing their effect on dependent variables.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment and serves as a baseline for comparison.

Independent Variable(s)

The variable(s) manipulated by the researcher to test its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable(s)

The outcome variable(s) measured by the researcher to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance to ensure each group is comparable at the start.

Single-Blind Procedure

A research design in which participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group to reduce bias.

Double-Blind Procedure

A research design in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of group assignments to minimize bias.

Placebo Effect

Improvements in a participant's condition resulting from their expectation of treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that could influence the dependent variable and confound the results.