Cognitive Psychology: Memory, Thinking, and Decision-Making Concepts

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Cognitive approach

A psychological perspective that examines internal mental processes such as perception, memory, thinking, and problem-solving.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Attention

The focusing of mental resources on select information to process it more thoroughly.

Memory

The processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Thinking

The mental manipulation of information to form concepts, solve problems, and make decisions.

Decision making

The process of selecting from among alternatives based on reasoning or judgment.

Multi-Store Model (MSM)

Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, it includes sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

Working Memory Model (WMM)

Proposed by Baddeley and Hitch, includes the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

Sensory memory

Brief storage of sensory information.

Short-term memory (STM)

Limited capacity memory store for immediate recall.

Long-term memory (LTM)

Unlimited capacity memory store for prolonged storage.

Flashbulb memory

A vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally arousing event.

Emotion

A response involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.

Appraisal theory

Emotions are extracted from our evaluations (appraisals) of events.

Dual Process Model

System 1: Fast, automatic, intuitive thinking. System 2: Slow, effortful, logical reasoning.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb for decision-making.

Availability heuristic

Judging based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging based on similarity to a prototype.

Cognitive biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

Anchoring bias

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for or interpret information that confirms one's beliefs.

Overconfidence bias

Tendency to overestimate one's abilities or knowledge.

Framing effect

Decisions are influenced by how choices are presented.

Experiment

Controlled method for investigating cause-effect relationships.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable measured in response.

Field experiment

Conducted in a real-world setting.

Quasi-experiment

Lacks random assignment; often uses naturally occurring groups.

Case study

In-depth analysis of an individual or group.

Triangulation

Using multiple methods or data sources in research to enhance credibility.

Informed consent

Participants must be aware of what the study involves.

Right to withdraw

Participants can leave the study at any time.

Deception

Should be minimized and justified.

Debriefing

Informing participants of the true nature of the study after participation.

Explicit memory (Declarative)

Memory of facts and experiences one can consciously recall.

Episodic memory

Memory of personal events.

Semantic memory

Memory of general knowledge.

Implicit memory (Non-declarative)

Memory without conscious recall, like skills.

Procedural memory

Memory for motor skills or habits.

Reconstructive memory

The idea that memory is not a passive retrieval but an active reconstruction influenced by prior knowledge.

Schema theory

Cognitive structures that help organize and interpret information; influence memory and perception.

Confabulation

Filling in memory gaps with fabricated or distorted information.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory after an event.

False memory

Recollection of an event that never actually occurred.

Encoding

Process of converting information into a usable form or code that can be stored in memory.

Storage

Retention of information over time.

Retrieval

Process of locating and recovering stored information from memory so we are conciously aware of it.

Schema

Mental model containing everything you know about a particular object/person.