4th Quarter S.S. Grade 7 Lecture notes 1 - 3

Ferdinand Marcos Sr. - Early Life

• Born: September 11, 1917, in Sarrat, Ilocos Norte.

• Parents: Mariano Marcos and Josefa Edralin (both teachers).

• Education: Sarrat Central School, Shamrock Elementary School, Ermita Elementary School, University of the Philippines (high school, liberal arts, law degree cum laude in 1939).

• Early Military Service: Commissioned as a third lieutenant in the Philippine Constabulary Reserve (served as ROTC battalion commander).

Julio Nalundasan Murder Case

• Context: Julio Nalundasan was a political rival of Ferdinand Marcos Sr.'s father.

• Event: Nalundasan was killed in 1935.

• Marcos's Involvement: Ferdinand Marcos Sr. was arrested, tried, and found guilty in 1939 of conspiracy to murder.

• Outcome: He successfully appealed to the Supreme Court, winning an acquittal a year later. While in jail, he reviewed for the bar examinations.

Marcos's Bar Exam Performance (Myth vs. Fact) Myth: Marcos holds the highest score in the PH Bar Exam (claimed 98.01%).

Fact-Checked: Justice Florenz D. Regalado holds the highest score (96.7%) in 1954. Marcos was a topnotcher with 92.35%.

Marcos's World War II Claims (Myth vs. Fact)

• Led a guerilla resistance unit called “Ang Mga Maharlika.”

• Portrayed himself as a heroic guerilla leader.

• Won 30+ medals for heroism, including 3 major US Army medals. Fact-Checked:

• US Government Archives and roster of recipients of US medals have no records of such claims.

• Robert Lapham (supervised guerilla units where Marcos said his unit operated) was not aware of the unit's existence.

• Col. Romulo Manriques (Marcos's superior) swore Marcos was never assigned to patrol or combat.

• Capt. Vicente Rivera said he never recommended Marcos for any decoration.

• No records of Marcos as a prisoner in Kempeitai files or files of Col. Seiichi Ohta.

• No records of Marcos in the Battle of Bessang Pass.

1965 Presidential Election Candidates & Parties:

• Ferdinand E. Marcos (Nacionalista Party): Winner (51.94%)

• Diosdado Macapagal (Liberal Party - Incumbent): Loser (42.88%)

• Raul Manglapus (Party for Philippine Progress): Trailed (5.17%) Reasons for Macapagal's Loss:

• Economic issues (failure to effectively alleviate poverty).

• Graft and corruption (highlighted by the Stonehill scandal).

• Concerns over rising consumer goods prices.

Policy/Event: Philippine Involvement in Vietnam War (Marcos's First Term)

• Marcos initially opposed sending a military engineering battalion.

• Later allowed involvement via the Philippine Civic Action Group (PHILCAG) under U.S. pressure (Johnson administration).

• PHILCAG involved from mid-1966, grew to ~1,600 troops by 1968.

• Focus: Mainly civilian infrastructure projects.

• Impact: Over 10,000 Filipino soldiers served in Vietnam from 1966 to 1970.

Event: Manila Summit (1966)

Purpose: Announced by Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos during a U.S. visit. Goal: Address the Vietnam problem, demonstrating that both Americans and Asian nations wanted to preserve democracy.

Event: Anti-Summit Demonstration (October 1966)

Protesters: Unarmed students and other professionals. Action: Protested peacefully in front of the American embassy and Manila Hotel. Government Response: Met with violence and protesters were branded as communists. Significance: Marked the beginning of a witch hunt.

Policy: Agrarian Land Reform (Marcos's First Term)

Stated Goal: Land redistribution to landless farmers. Outcome by 1986:

• Only 2.27% of all land titles distributed.

• Benefited just 0.17% of farmers.

Term: IR8 Rice ("Wonder Rice")

Development: Developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), supported by Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. Characteristic: High-yield rice variety. Impact: Led the Philippines to become a net exporter of rice. Marcos's Role: No direct involvement in its development.

Phenomenon: Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)

Cause: Unemployment in the Philippines. Effect:

• Many Filipinos sought jobs overseas in the 1970s (major source of domestic workers and laborers).

• Establishment of the Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers to assist in job opportunities and hiring.

• Contributed to a "brain drain."

Program: Central Luzon Development Program (CLDP)

Problem Addressed: Deteriorating peace and order, particularly the Huk insurgency in Central Luzon (plagued by murder, homicide, rape, robbery, mayhem, smuggling, and officer involvement in crimes). Action Taken: In April 1967, the Citizens Legal Assistance Committee was formed to protect citizens. Context: Initiated as a solution after events like the Culatingan Massacre.

Event: Culatingan Massacre (1966)

Location: Tarlac Details: Three constabulary officers, posing as Huks, killed seven farmers who were providing them food. Criticism: Then-Tarlac Governor Benigno Aquino, Jr. criticized the incident. Marcos's Response: Promoted the involved officers. Connection: Led to the initiation of the Central Luzon Development Program (CLDP).

Policy/Legacy: Infrastructure Development (Marcos Administration 1965-1986)

Funding: Foreign loans. Positive Aspect: Well-remembered for contributions to infrastructure. Negative Aspect: Led to an outstanding debt of $28.3 billion by 1986. Examples:

• Roads & Bridges: ~12,000 km of roads, >1,200 bridges (e.g., North Luzon Expressway, San Juanico Bridge).

• Cultural Centers: CCP, Tanghalang Francisco Balagtas, National Arts Center, Manila Film Center.

• Energy: Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (not operational), Agus Hydroelectric Power Plants, Magat, Pampanga, etc. (Electrification reached 45.6% of households by 1986).

• Health & Other: PICC, Philippine Heart Center, Lung Center, National Kidney and Transplant Institute.

Event: 1969 Election

Outcome: Ferdinand Marcos secured a second term. Characterization: Described by Newsweek and Time as the "dirtiest, most violent and most corrupt" election. Known for: The "Three Gs": guns, goons, and gold.

term: Philippine Economic Status (Myth vs. Fact - Marcos Years)

Claim: PH was the richest country in Asia during Marcos’ years (or second richest after Japan). Truth:

• PH never became the richest country in Asia after Japan.

• PH was behind other ASEAN countries.

Cause: Economic Decline and Increasing Debt (Marcos's Second Term)

Effect: Filipino discontent and protests.

Issue: Graft and Corruption (Marcos's Second Term)

Examples:

• Huge loans spent on development projects and crony capitalism.

• Discovery of Swiss Bank Accounts (December 1990, Swiss Federal Supreme Court confirmed freezing of dummy accounts like Maler Foundation, Averina Foundation, etc.).

• Imelda Marcos’ extravagant lifestyle (shoes, artworks, jewelries, luxury items).

• Favors given to military and cronies. Effect: Filipino discontent and protests.

Event: Battle of Mendiola (January 1970)

Participants: Student protesters vs. government forces. Location: Near Malacañang Palace. Cause: Students frustrated with worsening living conditions marched to protest Marcos. Escalation: The protest became violent, with students fighting back and police responding with firepower. Significance: Marked a turning point, leading to a wave of protests.

Term: First Quarter Storm (FQS)

Period: Late January to mid-March (1970). Nature: Significant period of civil unrest; demonstrations, protests, marches against Marcos's administration. Participants: Spearheaded by students, joined by workers, peasants, urban poor. Concerns Voiced: Social issues, Marcos's authoritarian rule, alleged election fraud, government corruption. Government Response: Protests often met violent dispersals. Impact: Radicalized many students, strengthened resolve for radical social change; played a crucial role in setting the stage for Martial Law.

Event: Diliman Commune

Dates: February 1-9, 1971 (nine-day uprising). Participants: Students, faculty, transport workers, residents of UP Diliman. Cause: Protest against a three-centavo oil price hike. Actions:

• UP community formed barricades, preventing government forces from entering.

• Renamed campus "Free Commune of UP Diliman."

• Seized control of DZUP radio station and UP Press.

• Published their own newspaper, "Bandilang Pula." Escalation: Math professor shot and fatally wounded a student; students burned his car; police entered campus, arrested protesters. Significance: UP community's first major resistance; first student action after the First Quarter Storm.

Phenomenon: Resurgence of Communism (During/After Marcos's Rule)

Causes:

• Marcos’ authoritarian policies drove many to join the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP).

• CPP's political wing, National Democratic Front (NDF), united leftist groups.

• Exploitation of socioeconomic problems by CPP-NDF to gain support.

• Political instability. Effect: CPP-NPA expanded its influence, challenging government authority.

Event: Plaza Miranda Bombing

Date & Location: During a Liberal Party rally in Quiapo, Manila. Context: Liberal Party proclaiming senatorial candidates to oppose Marcos's plans. Incident: Grenades thrown onto the stage. Casualties: Killed nine people, injured about a hundred (including prominent figures like Jovito Salonga and Gerardo Roxas).

Event: Aftermath of the Plaza Miranda Bombing

Marcos's Action: Blamed communists for the attack. Justification For: Used the bombing to justify suspending the writ of habeas corpus. Perception: Seen as a precursor to declaring martial law. Controversy: Responsibility remains controversial (some suspect Marcos, others, including former CPP officials, blame the CPP).

Term: Writ of Habeas Corpus

Significance (in context): Its suspension by Marcos after the Plaza Miranda Bombing was a significant step, allowing for arrests without warrants and seen as a move towards authoritarian rule.

Term: Declaration of Martial Law (September 21, 1972)

Definition/Description: Ferdinand Marcos declared Martial Law in the Philippines, citing reasons to justify his decision. Stated Causes (Justifications by Marcos):

• First Quarter Storm (1970) - Portrayed as country on brink of chaos.

• Diliman Commune (1971) - Framed as evidence of growing radicalism and communist influence.

• Plaza Miranda Bombing (1971) - Blamed on communists (NPA) to justify need for stricter control.

• Alleged Communist attack against Juan Ponce Enrile (1972) - Used as a key justification, portraying government under threat (later revealed as staged).

• Communist Insurgency (CPP/NPA) - Claimed as a significant threat to national security.

• Muslim Separatist Movement (e.g., MNLF) - Used to address the "Moro rebellion" and maintain national unity.

• Economic Crisis (inflation, unemployment, poverty) - Argued Martial Law would allow economic reforms.

• Social Unrest and Political Instability (protests, strikes) - Claimed Martial Law necessary to restore peace and discipline.

• Corruption and Oligarchy - Promised to dismantle oligarchy and redistribute wealth.

• Constitutional Crisis (outdated 1935 Constitution) - Used as rationale to replace it with the 1973 Constitution, centralizing power.

• External Threats (Cold War, foreign interference) - Positioned himself as bulwark against destabilization.

• Moral Justification - Framed as a moral crusade to rid the country of crime, corruption, and immorality. Effect: Marcos empowered the military, abolished Congress, curtailed civil rights, and initiated his authoritarian rule.

Term: Communist attack against Juan Ponce Enrile (1972)

Definition: Marcos claimed Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile was ambushed by communist rebels on September 22, 1972. Reality: Later revealed to have been staged. Effect (at the time): Used as a key justification for declaring Martial Law, portraying the government as under threat from communist insurgency.

Term: Proclamation 1081

Definition: Formally dated September 21, 1972 (though announced September 23), it declared Martial Law in the Philippines by President Ferdinand Marcos. Stated Cause: Widespread lawlessness and rebellion. Effect: Empowered the military, abolished Congress, curtailed civil rights, and initiated Marcos's authoritarian rule.

Term: General Order 1

Definition: Formally announced that Marcos had assumed control over the entire government, including all its branches and agencies. Effect: Placed the Philippines under military rule and granted Marcos absolute authority, as he undertook all powers of the government as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.

Term: General Order 2

Definition: Ordered the Secretary of National Defense to arrest individuals involved in a conspiracy to seize political and state power and take over the government by force. Also authorized arrest and detention for crimes related to insurrection, rebellion, national security, public order, and violations of Marcos's decrees. Effect: Granted the President and military broad authority to arrest individuals without due process. Notable Individuals Arrested: Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr., Jose "Pepe" Diokno, Ramon Mitra, Sergio Osmeña Jr., Chino Roces, Maximo Soliven.

Term: General Order 3

Definition/Effect: Imposed a curfew from 12 midnight to 4 am.

Term: General Order 4

Definition/Effect: Disallowed people from rallying in schools, colleges, and hospitals.

Term: Bagong Lipunan (New Society)

Definition: Ferdinand Marcos's slogan/vision after declaring Martial Law. Stated Goals: Creating a more disciplined, patriotic, and progressive Philippines. Debate: Viewed by some as a genuine reform effort, by others as a means to legitimize authoritarian rule. Associated Actions: Involved infrastructure projects and consolidating power.

Term: Human Rights Abuses during the Marcos Regime

Definition: Widespread violations of human rights by the state. Statistics (from Amnesty International & other organizations):

• 102,240 victims of human rights violations

• 70,000 people arrested (mostly arbitrarily)

• 34,000 people tortured

• 3,240 killed by military and police

• 11,103 victims with approved compensation claims (Human Rights Reparation and Recognition Act of 2013)

• $683M in Swiss Banks declared ill-gotten (July 2003 Supreme Court Ruling)

• $5B estimated ill-gotten wealth

• Foreign debt increased from $360 million (1961) to $28.26B by end of Marcos's rule. Cause: Authoritarian rule, suppression of dissent. Effect: Massive human suffering, long-term social and political trauma, significant economic damage.

Term: Philippine Economy during Martial Law (1972–1981)

Initial Phase: Grew due to global commodities boom and heavy borrowing for infrastructure (GDP growth peaked near 9%). Problems: Growth was unsustainable, unevenly distributed; poverty increased significantly. Later Phase (mid-1980s): Economy collapsed, shrinking by 7.3% in 1984 and 1985. Cause: Economic mismanagement, widespread corruption, crony capitalism, skyrocketing foreign debt (from $360M in 1962 to $26.2B by 1985). Effect: Real wages fell, unemployment rose, most Filipinos' living conditions declined.

Term: Crony Capitalism

Definition: A system under Ferdinand Marcos where his close friends and allies received special treatment from the government, given control over key industries (e.g., coconut, sugar). Cause: Marcos's favoritism and desire to consolidate power and wealth among allies. Effect:

• Cronies made huge profits while harming ordinary Filipinos.

• Hurt fair competition.

• Led to widespread corruption.

• Concentrated wealth in the hands of a few.

• Many people fell into poverty.

• The economy suffered greatly by the mid-1980s.

• Serves as a warning about how political connections can damage an economy and create inequality.

Term: Edifice Complex

Definition: Refers to the Marcos government's (especially First Lady Imelda Marcos) focus on building large, impressive structures (e.g., Cultural Center of the Philippines, luxury hotels). Stated Goal (by Imelda): Show off the country’s progress and make the Marcos regime look successful and powerful. Funding: Loans and public money. Cause: Desire for grandiosity and to project an image of success. Effect/Criticism:

• Used a lot of money that could have been spent on essential services (schools, hospitals, poverty alleviation).

• Many buildings were not useful for most Filipinos.

• Became a symbol of the government caring more about appearances than solving real problems.

Term: Maharlika

Definition/Issue: Marcos Sr. wanted to change the name of the Philippines to Maharlika.

Term: Closure of media outlets

Definition: Severe suppression of press freedom, particularly after the declaration of Martial Law in 1972. Details: Over 400 media outlets shut down (TV, newspapers, magazines, radio). Cause: Marcos's desire to control information and silence dissent. Effect:

• Journalists critical of the government were arrested.

• Only media controlled by Marcos's allies were allowed to operate.

• Strict censorship ensured only pro-government narratives were published.

• Silenced dissent and limited public access to truthful information.

• Created a climate of fear and self-censorship.

• Deeply impacted Philippine journalism and democracy.

Term: Lifting of Martial Law (1981)

Event: Ferdinand Marcos lifted Martial Law on January 17, 1981, through Proclamation No. 2045. Primary Cause (Stated): To improve his image internationally. Reality/Effect: Largely symbolic; Marcos kept many of his powers and continued to rule as a dictator. Human rights abuses and repression persisted until 1986.

Event: Assassination of Ninoy Aquino Jr. Date: August 21, 1983.

Who: Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr., a leading critic of Ferdinand Marcos. What: Assassinated at Manila International Airport upon returning from exile. Official Blame: The government blamed Rolando Galman. Public Belief: Many believed the Marcos regime was behind the killing. Effect: Sparked widespread outrage, fueling protests that eventually led to the 1986 People Power Revolution and the fall of Marcos.

Event: Snap Elections (1986)

Date: February 7, 1986. Cause: Ferdinand Marcos called for early elections to prove his legitimacy. Opponent: Corazon Aquino. Characteristics: Marred by widespread fraud, vote-buying, and violence. Conflicting Results:

• COMELEC: Marcos - 10,807,197 votes; Aquino - 9,291,716 votes.

• NAMFREL: Marcos - 6,787,566 votes; Aquino - 7,502,601 votes. Effect: Rigged results sparked outrage, leading to widespread protests and contributing to the EDSA Revolution.

Term: Events that led to the EDSA Revolution

Definition: A series of key events culminating in the People Power Revolution. Chronology & Cause/Effect:

• February 22, 1986: Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and Constabulary Chief Fidel Ramos defected.

  • Cause: Dissatisfaction with Marcos/response to rigged elections.

  • Effect: Cardinal Jaime Sin called for support on radio, prompting people to form protective barricades.

• February 23–24, 1986: Protests escalated as millions gathered at EDSA.

  • Cause: Call for support, growing outrage.

  • Effect: Demonstrators peacefully faced off against military forces using flowers and prayers.

• February 25, 1986: Massive crowd demanded Marcos' resignation.

  • Cause: Sustained peaceful protest and military defections.

  • Effect: Marcos fled the country, and Corazon Aquino was sworn in as president, marking the end of Marcos' rule.

Term: 1987 Constitution of the Philippines

Definition/Description:

• Replaced the 1973 Constitution (Marcos era).

• Brought back a bicameral Congress (Senate and House).

• Divided power between Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary branches.

• President became head of state and government again.

• Congress makes laws; President can veto.

• Expanded Bill of Rights to protect citizens.

• Created Independent Commissions (e.g., Commission on Audit).

• Instituted measures to prevent tyranny (term limits for President, bicameral Congress, Congressional approval for martial law).

• Declared the Philippines a democratic and republican state.

• Emphasized social justice and improving education. Cause (for its creation): The need to dismantle the structures of the Marcos dictatorship and restore democratic institutions after the EDSA People Power Revolution. Effect (intended): To establish a more democratic, accountable, and rights-respecting government, preventing a recurrence of authoritarian rule.

Term: Coup d'état

Definition: When a small group, usually the army, suddenly and illegally takes over a country's government. The aim is to replace leaders, not necessarily change the entire system. Cause (general): Dissatisfaction with current leadership, political instability, perceived corruption, or desire for power by a specific group (often military). Effect (general): Change in government leadership, potential political instability, suppression or restoration of democratic processes.

Event: Coup attempts against the Corazon Aquino administration

Examples & Brief Description:

• 1986 (Multiple): Several rebellions and coup threats after Marcos was ousted.

• 1987 (January & August): More coup attempts that were suppressed.

• 1989: A major coup attempt involving RAM (Reform the Armed Forces Movement) and Marcos loyalists; failed with US help.

• 1990 (March & October): Two more coup attempts, including the Hotel Delfino siege and a mutiny in Mindanao. Cause: Lingering loyalty to Marcos among some military factions, dissatisfaction with the Aquino government's policies or pace of reform, ambitions of certain military groups. Effect: Political instability during Aquino's term, demonstrated fragility of the newly restored democracy, diverted government attention and resources.

Event: Coup attempts against the Gloria Macapagal Arroyo administration

Examples & Brief Description:

• 2003 Oakwood Mutiny: Soldiers protested corruption by taking over a commercial complex; ended peacefully.

• 2006 State of Emergency: Arroyo declared a state of emergency due to an alleged coup plot; security forces raided press offices and arrested critics.

• 2007 Manila Peninsula Siege: Soldiers took over a hotel, demanding Arroyo's resignation; they surrendered after the hotel was stormed. Cause: Allegations of widespread corruption within the Arroyo administration, questions about the legitimacy of her presidency, grievances within the military. Effect: Increased political tension, challenges to Arroyo's authority, suppression of dissent (during the 2006 State of Emergency).

Term: Graft and Corruption

Definition: When people in power abuse their jobs for personal gain. This includes bribery (taking money for favors), extortion (demanding money with threats), and nepotism (favoring family/friends). Corrupt officials prioritize personal interests over public service. Cause (general): Weak governance, lack of transparency and accountability, greed, opportunities for illicit gain, weak enforcement of anti-corruption laws. Effect (on the Philippines):

• Stealing money: Less money for schools, hospitals, etc.

• Slowing growth: Harder to create jobs and improve lives.

• Increasing debt: More borrowing, costing taxpayers.

• Unfairness: Favors the rich and powerful, hurts everyone else.

• Breaking trust: People lose faith in the government.

Corruption Scandal: Coconut Levy Fund Controversy (Corazon Aquino Administration)

Description: A tax imposed on coconut farmers during Marcos' regime was allegedly diverted to benefit cronies. Challenge/Effect: Despite promises of reform, Aquino's government struggled to redistribute the fund equitably to the farmers.

Corruption Scandal: Clark Centennial Expo Scandal (Fidel Ramos Administration)

Description: The ₱9 billion Clark Centennial Expo was criticized for corruption and misuse of funds. Allegation/Effect: Funds were allegedly used for electioneering by Ramos's party; deemed a costly "white elephant" project.

Corruption Scandal: PEA-Amari Scandal (Fidel Ramos Administration)

Description: A deal for Manila Bay reclamation faced allegations of favoritism and irregularities. Effect: Cost the government billions; dubbed the "grandmother of all scams."

Corruption Scandal: Jueteng Scandal (Joseph Estrada Administration)

Description: Estrada was accused of receiving payoffs from illegal gambling operations ("jueteng"). Effect: Pivotal in his impeachment process.

Corruption Scandal: Plunder Conviction of Joseph Estrada

Description: In 2007, Estrada was convicted of plunder for amassing ill-gotten wealth (est. $81 million). Outcome: Sentenced to life imprisonment but later pardoned in 2009.

Corruption Scandal: ZTE Broadband Deal (Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Administration)

Description: A controversial $329 million broadband deal with China's ZTE Corporation. Allegation/Effect: Raised suspicions of bribery and kickbacks involving government officials.

Corruption Scandal: PDAF Scam (2013) (Benigno Aquino III Administration)

Description: Significant scandal involving the diversion of congressional pork barrel funds (Priority Development Assistance Fund) to fake non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Effect: Implicated several lawmakers and highlighted issues within the allocation of public funds.

Corruption Scandal: DAP Controversy (Benigno Aquino III Administration)

Description: The Disbursement Acceleration Program (DAP) faced criticism for alleged unconstitutional use of public funds. Outcome: A Supreme Court ruling deemed certain aspects illegal.

Corruption Scandal: PhilHealth Scandal (2019) (Rodrigo Duterte Administration)

Description: Allegations surfaced regarding fraudulent claims within the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation. Effect: Led to investigations into corruption within the agency.

Corruption Scandal: Pharmally Scandal (2020) (Rodrigo Duterte Administration)

Description: The government faced scrutiny over contracts awarded to Pharmally Pharmaceutical Corporation for COVID-19 supplies. Allegations: Overpricing, favoritism, and involvement of Duterte's allies in corrupt procurement practices.

Term: Political Dynasty

Definition: A situation wherein members of the same family occupy elected positions either in sequence for the same position or simultaneously across different positions. Cause: Concentration of wealth and influence, weak political party system, name recall, patron-client relationships. Effect:

• Powerful families control politics and the economy.

• Blocks changes for a fairer system.

• Contributes to weak political parties that focus on personalities rather than issues.

Term: Warlordism (Linked with Political Dynasties and Oligarchies)

Definition (implied): Local political leaders who maintain power through a combination of political influence, wealth, and often the use of private armies or force, particularly in certain regions. Cause: Weak state presence in some areas, concentration of power in families, access to resources and means of coercion. Effect: Undermines rule of law, perpetuates violence, hinders democratic processes, contributes to political dynasties.

Term: Oligarchies (Linked with Political Dynasties)

Definition: Rule by a small group of wealthy and influential families who control politics and the economy. Cause: Historical concentration of land and wealth, ability to influence political processes, intermarriage among elite families. Effect: Blocks changes for a fairer system, policies may favor elite interests, perpetuates inequality.

Term: Patron-Client Relationship / Padrino System

Definition: Getting jobs or favors through family or friends (connections) rather than based on skills or merit. Origin: Traced back to the Spanish colonial era where connections were crucial for advancement. How it works (especially in politics): Candidates gain political support (e.g., during elections) with the expectation that once in power, they will give favors (jobs, contracts, etc.) to those who supported them. Cause: Cultural norms, lack of strong merit-based systems, desire for personal gain and security through connections. Effect:

• Unfairness in appointments and opportunities.

• Corruption.

• Inefficiency in public service.

• Reinforces political dynasties and loyalty-based politics.

Term: Electoral Fraud

Definition: Illegal interference with the process of an election, either to increase the vote share of a favored candidate, depress the vote share of rival candidates, or both. Common Issues in the Philippines:

• Vote Buying: Politicians pay voters for support.

• Dagdag-Bawas: Manipulating vote counts by illegally adding votes to a candidate or subtracting votes from a rival.

• Machine Errors: Failures in automated election systems, like discrepancies in vote counts.

• Intimidation and Violence: Voters and candidates face threats or harm. Cause: Desire to win at all costs, weak enforcement of electoral laws, culture of impunity, poverty (making voters susceptible to vote-buying). Effect:

• Undermines democracy.

• Erodes public trust in elections and elected officials.

• Leads to the election of corrupt or incompetent leaders.

• Can perpetuate political dynasties.

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