lab final

True ribs

First 7 pairs of ribs that attach directly to the sternum

False ribs

Ribs 8-12 that do not attach directly to the sternum

Articulated pelvis

Pelvis with bones connected in correct anatomical position

Male pelvis

Narrow, deep, smaller pelvic inlet

Female pelvis

Wider, shallower, larger pelvic inlet (for childbirth)

Scapula

Shoulder blade; flat bone on posterior thorax

Ulna

Medial forearm bone (pinky side)

Tibia

Shin bone; weight-bearing lower leg bone

Proximal articulation (humerus)

Shoulder joint

Distal articulation (humerus)

Elbow joint

Proximal articulation (ulna)

Humerus

Distal articulation (ulna)

Wrist bones

Proximal articulation (femur)

Hip joint

Distal articulation (femur)

Knee joint

Proximal articulation (tibia)

Femur

Distal articulation (tibia)

Ankle

Long bones

Longer than wide (e.g., femur)

Short bones

Cube-shaped (e.g., carpals)

Flat bones

Thin, protective (e.g., skull)

Irregular bones

Complex shapes (e.g., vertebrae)

Sesamoid bones

Develop in tendons (e.g., patella)

Fibrous joints

Immovable

Cartilaginous synchondroses

Immovable

Cartilaginous symphyses

Slightly movable

Synovial joints

Freely movable

Cornea

Transparent front; refracts light

Lens

Focuses light onto retina

Retina

Contains photoreceptors

Optic nerve

Transmits visual signals

Snellen chart

Tests visual acuity (clarity of vision)

Glaucoma

Increased eye pressure → optic nerve damage

Cataracts

Clouding of lens → blurry vision

Bony labyrinth

Rigid outer ear structure

Membranous labyrinth

Fluid-filled inner structure for hearing/balance

Right atrium

Receives deoxygenated blood

Right ventricle

Pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs

Left atrium

Receives oxygenated blood

Left ventricle

Pumps oxygenated blood to body

Blood flow through heart

Vena cava → Right atrium → Right ventricle → Pulmonary artery → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Left ventricle → Aorta

Systemic circulation

Heart → body → heart

Foramen ovale

Bypasses lungs (atria)

Ductus arteriosus

Connects pulmonary artery to aorta

Ductus venosus

Bypasses liver

Artery (histology)

Thick walls, more smooth muscle

Vein (histology)

Thinner walls, larger lumen

Tunica interna

Inner endothelial layer

Tunica media

Smooth muscle

Tunica externa

Connective tissue

P wave

Atrial depolarization

QRS complex

Ventricular depolarization

T wave

Ventricular repolarization

Cardiac conduction pathway

SA node → AV node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers

Epinephrine (heart)

Increases rate & strength

Acetylcholine (heart)

Decreases rate

Systolic pressure

Pressure during contraction

Diastolic pressure

Pressure during relaxation

Normal pulse rate

70-76 bpm

Exercise effect

Increases pulse rate

Alveoli

Site of gas exchange; simple squamous epithelium

Pharynx regions (shared)

Oropharynx & laryngopharynx

Air pathway

Nose → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Lungs

Quiet inspiration muscle

Diaphragm

Forced inspiration

Diaphragm + intercostals

Forced expiration

Abdominals

Paper bag breathing

Increases CO₂ → slows breathing

Adult dental formula

2-1-2-3

Infant dental formula

2-1-0-2

Liver

Produces bile

Gallbladder

Stores bile

Pancreas

Digestive enzymes

Greater omentum

Covers intestines

Lesser omentum

Connects stomach to liver

Digestive wall layers

Mucosa → Submucosa → Muscularis

Oblique layer (stomach)

Adds churning power

Goblet cells

Produce mucus for lubrication

Renal cortex

Outer kidney layer

Renal medulla

Inner region

Renal pelvis

Collects urine

Glomerular filtration

Blood → filtrate

Glucose in urine

Diabetes

Nitrites in urine

Bacterial infection

Anterior pituitary hormones

GH, TSH, ACTH, etc.

Posterior pituitary hormones

ADH, oxytocin

Thyroid hormones

Regulate metabolism

Pancreas hormones

Insulin & glucagon

Adrenal glands

Stress hormones (cortisol, adrenaline)

Testis

Produces sperm

Ovary

Produces eggs

Leydig cells

Produce testosterone

Seminal fluid

Nourishes & transports sperm

Graafian follicle

Mature follicle with oocyte

Blastocyst

Early embryo stage

Inner cell mass

Embryo

Trophoblast

Placenta

Germ layers

Ectoderm → Skin & nervous system, Mesoderm → Muscles & bones, Endoderm → Organs

Ectopic pregnancy

Implantation outside uterus

Placenta previa

Placenta covers cervix