TAMU biology 320 exam 3

Nutrient

chemicals used by the body to produce energy. Provides building blocks, or sometimes it is something needed for tissue growth, repair, or maintained.

Major nutrient

carbs, proteins, lipids, and water. vitamins and minerals needed in smaller amounts.

Essential nutrients

something that has to be in the diet that we do not synthesize ourselves, some fatty acids are essential, vitamins, a few types of carbs, etc. around 50 needed things.

Glycogenesis

creation of glycogen, takes glucose and puts it in the storage form

Glycogenolysis

breaking down glycogen to release glucose.

Gluconeogenesis

creating glucose from non-carb sources. Create energy from fatty acids, glycerol, and even amino acids.

Carbohydrates

most come from plants except lactose

Monosaccharides

single sugar, glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharides

two sugar, sucrose, maltose, lactose, can be converted to glucose

Polysaccharides

complex sugars, starches, glycogen, cellulose, can be converted to glucose

Triglycerides

energy lipid that is 95% of lipids, can be stored. From sat and unsaturated

Saturated fats

from meat fats, whole milk, and cheese

Unsaturated fats

olive and peanut oils

Cholesterol

steroid found in the liver, egg yolks but not found in plants. Ingested or made in the body. Used for plasma membranes, bile salts, and steroids.

Phospholipids

major component of plasma membranes, used for plasma membranes, myelin sheaths, and bile

Linoleic acids

essential fatty acids, found in seeds, nuts, legumes, grains, and green leaves.

Lipids function

triglycerides make ATP, excess can be in adipose tissue and liver.

Eicosanoids

derived from fatty acids, used in inflammation, blood clotting, tissue repair, smooth muscle contraction.

Protein functions

chains of amino acids, protection for antibodies, regulation of enzymes and hormones, structure of collagen, muscle contraction with actin and myosin, and transportation of hemoglobin or ion channels.

Essential proteins

must be from diet

Nonessential proteins

body can synthesize these proteins

Complete proteins

contains all necessary amino acids from fish, chicken, eggs, cheese, meat.

Vitamins

most function as coenzyme, organic molecules in minute quantities in food.

Coenzyme

must be combined with another enzyme to work

Provitamins

can be converted into functioning vitamin.

Lipid soluble

can be stored in fatty tissues to the point of toxicity, vitamin A,d, e,k

Water soluble

remains for a short time but then are secreted, vitamin b, c and all others.

Antioxidants

metabolic byproduct that is short an electron or two, and leaves the cells damaged. Prevents formation of free radicals

Minerals

inorganic chemicals for normal metabolic function, resting membrane and action potentials, teeth and bones, buffers, osmotic balance, coenzymes, vitamins, and hemoglobin. Obtained from animal and plant.

USDA

united states department of agriculture, created health advisories for children for deficiencies. Made wheel, basic 4, hassle free guide, food pyramids, and choose my plate option.

Plasma cholesterol levels

livers produce it at a genetic basal level regardless, in response to saturated fatty acids stimulates cholesterol synthesis, and inhibits excretion. In response to unsaturated it makes more cholesterol and holds storage.

Trans fats

increase harmful low density lipoproteins and reduce helpful high density lipoproteins.

Unsaturated omega 3

fatty acids in cold water fish, there is lower saturated fat and cholesterol, helps with arrhythmias, clotting issues, and blood pressure issues.

Cholesterol

structural basis of steroids, bile salts, and vitamin D. transported via lipoproteins. Higher density used to transport excess cholesterol to liver and gets it to steroid producing endocrine glands.

Low density lipoproteins

transports cholesterol to the periphery. Helps with regulation of cholesterol synthesis.

Very low density lipoproteins

transports triglycerides to peripheral tissues and muscles.

LDL increase

changed by stress, smoking, and coffee consumption

HDL increase

aerobic exercise, estrogen

Excess dietary protein

excess amino acids are not stored in the body, they will be converted into an energy source and can become a fat storage. They don't exist as themselves, they are changed from transamination. Either from starvation or overeating protein.

Thermic effect of food

increases metabolism temporarily from the products of food.

Regulation of digestion

mechanical and chemical stimuli, intrinsic and extrinsic control, and depends on what you eat.

Gastric juice contains

gastrin, histamine, HCl, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor.

Phases of gastric secretions

cephalic, gastric, intestinal.

Digestion bottleneck

pyloric sphincter and duodenum are what can slow down the process.

Surface area modifications of the small intestine

plaicae circularis, villi, and microvilli.

Alkaline small intestine

either from the crypts or the pancreatic secretions will buffer the acid coming in from the stomach

Absorption starts

in the small intestine it begins the process with glucose absorbed in the GI tract. The glucose can move to muscles or tissues or liver or adipose, or the proteins can go to liver or adipose in a different form as fat.

Amino acids in liver

gets converted to proteins or keto acids/fatty acid/fat.

Insulin with increased blood glucose

controls absorptive state, its secretion is stimulated by blood glucose. Islet of Langerhans to make beta cells to increase insulin. Increases active transport of amino acids into tissues to make

Insulin control secretion stimulated by

elevated amino acid levels, increased blood glucose, or gastrin, CCK, or histamine secretions.

Post absorptive state

empty gut, catabolism replaces fluids in blood.

Brain fuel (stores and preference)

this organ prefers glucose, and there is no fuel storage in the brain.

Heart muscle fuel (stores and preference)

this organ prefers fatty acids, and stored as triglycerides

Adipose tissue fuel (stores and preference)

this tissue prefers fatty acids, and stored as triglycerides

Liver fuel (stores and preferences)

prefers to utilize fatty acids, glucose, and amino acids. The storage form would be triglycerides, glycogen, and protein.

Resting skeletal muscle fuel (stores and preferences)

prefers fatty acids and stores glycogen.

Active skeletal muscle fuel (stores and preference)

this organ prefers glucose and stores proteins

Insulin inhibits

cortisol release

Absorptive state occurs

gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, lipogenesis

Post absorptive state occurs

glycolysis. Glucose breaks down storage fuels to make a constant glucose level to keep the brain alive.

Input

bond energy released from catabolizing food, metabolized in food intake,

Output

energy lost from heat of digestion (60%), energy used to do work, and storage energy.

Zerona low level lasers

gives normal fat cells repeated exposure to low level energy laser treatments that make the fat cells leak contents and shrinks, and the fat cells collapse and become flat. It was used to pretreat liposuction.

Food intake

two neurons in the hypothalamus LHA neurons promote hunger when stimulated by neuropeptides and VMN neurons tell the body it is full in response to CRH with appetite peptides.

Ghrelin

makes stomach growl, tells the body to eat

Glucagon

moves glucose into the blood

Epinephrine

moves glucose into the blood in a dangerous situation.

Neuropeptide Y

triggers a group of neurons to tell the body to get food.

Orexin

self arousal type neurons, tells the body to do something to go get food, scavenge, cook, etc.

Metabolism can be changed by

Temperature, stress, viral diseases, sleep deprivation

Exercise performance

consumed first is atp, then atp carbohydrates, then glycolysis, then aerobic respiration.

Catabolic hormones

glucagon, epinephrine, cortisol

Anabolic hormones

testosterone, growth hormone, IGF1, and insulin.

Insulin effects

increases protein synthesis, amino acid transport, glucose uptake, muscle glycogen storage, and muscle blood flow. inhibits protein degradation, cortisol release.

Sedentary with carbs

high carbs and lifestyle increases fat storage for this person because of insulin

Strength athlete

can benefit from the positive effects if you time the food intake to exercise correctly.

Nutrient timing Suzuki experiment

a post workout meal study would feed people immediately after exercise and fed after 4 hours. The results were that the immediate group got a 70% increase in fat oxidation enzymes and 24% decrease in abdominal fat. Compared with 4 hour later person

Nutrient timing esmerck experiment

measured insulin spikes for post workout meals immediately or 2 hours later. They found that muscle mass increased 8% and strength increased 15% for the immediate group. They used elderly people

At 3 years old

lack of proteins during fetal growth will show as intellectual disabilities later for kids.

Metabolic problems in kids

seem to occur later in development, except for insulin dependent diabetes myelitis.

Agents prescribed for age related medical problems

diuretics, antibiotics for bacteria in gut, mineral oil old treatment of constipation, excess alcohol consumption interferes with metabolism and vitamin deficiencies.

Non-enzymatic binding of glucose to proteins

increases risk with age, general stiffening of the tissues as well as the cloudiness of the eyes.

Urinary system function

filtration of the blood multiple times a day, excess is excreted as urine, reabsorption of nutrients.

Primary renal function

filters 200 liters of blood, removes toxins, removes metabolism waste, removes excess ions, regulates volume and chemical makeup, maintains proper water/salt/acid/base balance, site of gluconeogenesis from fasting, production of renin to regulate blood pressure, and production of erythropoietin to mature RBC, and activates vitamin D.

Kidneys

retroperitoneal organs, outside of the body cavity

Renal hilus

middle part of the kidney where blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves move in and out of the kidneys. (ureter attachment area)

3 layers of kidneys

renal capsule, adipose capsule, renal fascia

Renal capsule function

fibrous layer that helps protect the body from infection

Adipose capsule function

fatty mass layer that cushions the kidney, anchors it to body wall

Renal fascia function

outer dense connective tissue, fibrous, connects the kidney to the body wall.

Renal cortex

light colored, granular superficial region, glomeruli located here.

Renal medulla

contains renal columns that are inward extensions of cortical tissues that separate the pyramids which are collecting tubules, and medial to each pyramid is a papillae which is a drainage point.

Renal pelvis

innermost part of the kidney, collects urine from papillae and empties it into the pelvis.

Nephron

structural and functional unit of the kidney. cortical in cortex (85%) or juxtamedullary at medullary cortex junction. (15%)

Glomerular capillaries

afferent arteriole (larger diameter) goes to glomerulus to efferent arterioles (small diameter), moves arterioles of high resistance which makes efferent resistance higher, so this causes high blood pressure in the glomerulus which helps us form filtrate along the entire length of the glomerular capillaries.

Peritubular capillaries

wrapped around loop of Henle. low pressure capillaries that are adapted for absorption!! they arise from efferent arterioles and cling to renal tubules. They empty into the renal venous system.

Glomerular epithelium

fenestrated, allows solute rich and protein free filtrate to pass from blood into the bowman's capsule.

Bowman's capsule

parietal layer, mostly cuboidal cells. Keeps things together.

Visceral layer

(podocytes) these are support cells and have end processes with spaces for filtration slits. They regulate filtration.