AP Psychology- Unit 0 (copy)

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes and behaviors.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms your existing beliefs

Hindsight Bias

People claim they knew something would happen when they didn’t state it would before the something happened.

Overconfidence

Being more confident than correct; overestimating the accuracy of your beliefs

Empirical Evidence

Information that you get through observation, experiments, or measurements rather than theories

The Scientific Method

A step-by-step method for conducting research

Hypothesis

A prediction that you can test through study and experimentation

Falsifiable

Something that can be proven wrong through tests

Peer review

An expert or peer overviewing you’re work.

Replication

The process where something must be repeated or reproducing a research study in order to confirm its results

Reliability

Produces consistent results when done over and over again.

Validity

The extent to which a research study or measurement tool accurately measures what it intends to measure.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

A leading professional organization dedicated to advancing the field of psychology and promoting the application of psychological knowledge to improve human welfare

Research Design

The overall plan or strategy that outlines how a research study will be conducted to address specific research questions or objectives

Methodology

The systematic procedures and techniques used to conduct research within a specific research design.

Quantitative Data

Number based information gathered from surveys, test, or experiments.

Qualitative Data

Not about numbers but gives deeper insights into complex topics. Information given through methods like interviews and observations.

Likert scales

A measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess peoples attitudes, opinions, or perceptions; respondents specify their level of agreement to a statement

Structured Interviews

Research method where predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order.

Survey Technique

Research method used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures.

Wording effect

Subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents responses

Social Desirability bias

The tendency of people to respond in a manner that is more favored by others rather than being honest.

Naturalistic Observation

Researchers observe and record behaviors in real-world settings without letting the participants know

Case study

Involves an in depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon (Focuses on specific cases)

Correlation research

Examines the relationship between two or more variables

Third Variable Problem

Possibility that a unmeasured variable may be influencing variables of interest.

Scatterplot

Visual representation used in correlation research to display the relationship between 2 variables.

Correlation Coefficient

Statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between two variable

No correlation

Correlation coefficient of 0

Positive Correlation

+1 A relationship where if one variable increases, the other does too

Negative Correlation

-1 One increases the other decreases and vice versa

Experimental Method

A research technique used to investigate cause and effect relationship between variables.

Independent Variable

Variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

Variable that is observed and measured for changes in an in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

Variable that wasn’t accounted for or controlled but affects the results of the study.

Operational Definition

Specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study .

Experimental group

Participants who are exposed to the independent variable to observe the effect on the dependent variable.

Control group

Participants who are not exposed to the independent variable for a baseline.

Random assignment

Research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly.

Placebo effect

The phenomenon where individuals experience improvements in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment.

Experimenter Bias

The researchers expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results .

Single blind study

Research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but the researchers know.

Double blind study

Where neither the participants or the researcher know where each belongs.

Sample

A group of subjects selected from a larger population for study

Representative sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that accurately reflects the demographics, characteristics and diversity of that population

Random Sample

Ensures that each participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included (Minimizes influence of researcher bias and increases generalization)

Sample bias

Occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population, which causes inaccurate or misleading results.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings obtained from a sample can be applied to a larger population.

Statistics

The science of collecting, analyzing, presenting, and interpreting data

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset

Inferential Statistics

Involves using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a set of data

Mean

Average of data set

Median

Middle value of data set

Mode

Most frequently occurring value in data set

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest values in a

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve that shows data distribution; most scores fall near the middle

Regression to the Mean

When extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again

Positive Skew

Majority of the data clusters on the left side, with the tail extending towards the right, suggesting the presence of outliers

Negative Skew

Bulk of the data clusters on the right side, with the tail extending towards the left, suggesting the presence of outliers

Standard Deviation

Way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group

Percentile Rank

Statistical measure that indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value

Bimodal Distribution

Type of data distribution in which there are two distance peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph

Statistical Significance

Likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance

Effect Size

A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables

Meta Analysis

Statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants

Protect Participants from Harm

Emphasizes the obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of research participants throughout the study process

Informed Consent

Process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provided with comprehensive information about the study’s purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and rights

Informed Assent

Involves providing individuals with age appropriate or understandable information about the research study, including its purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits

Confidentiality

requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost discretion

Deception

May involve misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study, the procedures involved, or the expected outcomes

Confederates

Individuals who are part of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study

Debriefing

Providing participants with comprehensive information about the true nature, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after their participation

Placebo Condition

Administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested

Mental Processes

Thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be directly observed

Behavior

Any action that people can observe or measure

Psychodynamic Perspective

This approach looks at how our unconscious mind and childhood experiences shape our behaviors and emotions

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they’re learned through interactions with the environment

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes personal growth and the concept that everyone has the potential to achieve their own form of greatness

Cognitive Perspective

Examines how we process information, including how we think, understand, and remember information

Biological Perspective

Investigates the physical and biological bases of behavior, such as brain structures, chemicals, and genetics

Evolutionary Perspective

Considers how behaviors and mental processes might have developed over time to increase survival chances

Sociocultural Perspective

Looks at how our behaviors and thoughts are influenced by the society and culture we live in

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Integrates biological, psychological and sociocultural factors to provide a comprehensive understanding of human behavior