155 ways to go APES

Ionizing Radiation

enough energy to dislodge or free electrons from atoms, forming ions: capable of causing cancer (gamma, X-rays, UV)

High Quality Energy

organized and concentrated: can perform useful work (fossil fuels and nuclear energy)

Low Quality Energy

disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air, wind or solar)

First Law of Thermodynamics:

energy is neither created or destroyed, but may be converted from on form to another (Law of Conservation of Energy)

Second Law of Thermodynamics

when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is ALWAYS degraded into lower quality energy, usually heat.

Natural Radioactive Decay

unstable radioactive decay releasing gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta particles. (ex. Radon)

Half-Life

the time it takes for ½ the mass of a radioactive isotope to decay.

Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level

A radioactive isotope must be stored for approximately 10 half-lives until it decays to a safe level.

Nuclear Fission

nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons

Nuclear Fusion:

two isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (He). Process is expensive; break-even point has not yet been reached. Happens in the Sun.

Ore

a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine.

Mineral Reserve

identified deposits currently profitable to extract.

Best Solution To Energy Shortage

conservation, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy options.

Organic Fertilizer

slow-acting and long lasting because the organic remains need time to be deposited.

Surface Mining

cheaper and can remove more minerals, less hazardous to workers

Humus

organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms.

Leaching

removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards

Illuviation

deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B Horizons)

Loam

perfect agricultural soil with optimal portions of sand, silt, clay (40%, 40%, 20%)

Soil Conservation Methods

conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic fertilizers.

Soil Salinization

in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind. (ex: Fertile Cresent in southwestern US)

Conservation

allowing the use of resources in a responsible manner.

Preservation

setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities.

Water Logging

water completely saturates soil and starves plant roots of oxygen, rots roots.

Hydrologic Cycle Components

evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, perception and infiltration.

Watershed

all of the land that drains into a body of water

Aquifer

underground layers of porous rock allow water to move slowly

Cone of Depression

lowering of the water table around a pumping well

Salt Water Intrusion:

near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer.

ENSO: El Nino Southern Oscillation

See-Sawing of air pressure over the South Pacific

During an El Nino year

trade winds weaken and warm water sloshed back towards South America.Diminished fisheries off South America, drought in western Pacific, increased precipitation in southwestern North America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes

Effects of El Nino

Upwelling decreases disrupting food chains; Northern US has mild winters and Sothwest US has increased rainfall, less Atlantic Hurricanes

La Nina

Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean current pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West Coast of South America

Nitrogen Fixation

because atmospheric nitrogen cannot be used directly by plants, it first must be converted into ammonia by bacteria

Ammonificum

decomposers convert organic waste to ammonia

Nitrification

ammonia is concerted to Nitrate ion (NO-1)

Assimilation

inorganic N in converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids and proteins.

Deniitrification

bacteria convert nitrate (NO3)-1 and nitrite (NO2)-1 back into N2 gas.

Phosphorous does not circulate as easily as nitrogen because

it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate (PO4)-3 rocks.

Phosphorous Cycle is: (speed-wise)

a slow cycle and not atmospheric

Phosphorous is a major limiting nutrient

in the growth of plants

How phosphorous is added to aquatic ecosystems

runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sewage.

Sustainability

the ability to meet the current needs of humanity with compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs

Photosynthesis

plants convert CO2 (atmospheric carbon) into complex carbohydrates (sugars) (glucose C6H12O6)

Aerobic Respiration

Oxygen (O2) consuming producers, consumers and decomposers break down complex organic compounds and convert Carbon (C ) back into CO2

Largest Reservoirs of Carbon (C)

carbonate (CO3)2- rocks first, oceans second.

Biotic

the living component of an ecosystem

Abiotic

non-living component of an ecosystem

Producer/Autotroph

organisms that make their own food—photosynthetic or chemosynthetic life

Trophic Levels

producers→ primary consumer→secondary consumer→tertiary consumer

Energy Flow in Food Webs

only 10% of the usable energy is transferred to the next trophic level: REASON: because usable energy is lost as heat. (Second law of thermodynamics): not all biomass is digested and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey

Succession

in ecology, the gradual colonization of a habitat after an environmental disturbance (ex fire, flood), usually by a series of species

Primary Succession

development of communities in a lifeless area not recently inhabited by life (ex. retreating glacier) or those in which the soil profile is completely destroyed (lava flows): begin with lichen action

Secondary Succession

life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest, vacant lot, old farm or fire)

Climax Community

the stable, final community that develops from ecological succession

Symbiosis

occurs when members of two different species live in close physical contact with each other.

Mutualism

symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit

Commensalism

symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is unaffected.

Parasitism

relationship in which one organism (the parasite) obtains nutrients at the expense of the host.

Biomes

large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants and animals

Carrying Capacity

the number of individuals the can be sustained in an area

R strategist

reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce early; bear many small; unprotected offspring (ex. insects, mice)

K strategist

reproduce late in life; few offspring; care for offspring

Positive Feedback

when a change in some conditions triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (warmer Earth—snow melts—less sunlight is reflected and more is absorbed, therefore a warmer Earth)

Negative Feedback

when a change in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (warmer Earth—more ocean evaporation—more stratus clouds—less sunlight reaches the ground—therefore a cooler Earth)

Natural Selection

organisms that possess favorable adaptations (traits) and pass them onto the next generation. These organisms have higher reproductive success.

Exotic Species/Invasive Species

non-Native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem balance; examples African Honeybee; Fire Ant, Zebra Mussel, Purple Loosestrife.

Doubling Time: (Rule of 70):

doubling time equals 70 divided by the percent growth rate. For example, if a population is growing at 5% annually, it doubles in 14 years; 70/5 -14 years.the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (averages 2.1 in developed nations, 2.7 in less developed nations)

Replacement Level Fertility

the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (averages 2.1 in developed nations, 2.7 in less developed nations)

World Population

7.5 Billion

U. S. Population

321 Million

Preindustrial Stage

birth and death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high

Transitional Stage

death rate (infant mortality) lower, birth rates remain high, better health care, population grows fast

Industrial Stage

decline in birth rate, population growth slows

Postindustrial state

low birth rate and low death rate

Age Structure Diagram

broad base→ rapid growth; narrow base→ negative growth; uniform shape→ zero growth

Top Four Most Populated Nations

1) China; 2) India; 3) U.S. and ) Indonesia

Most Important Thing Affecting Population Growth

low status of women

Methods or Ways to Decrease Birth Rate

family planning; contraception, economic rewards and penalties

Composition of Water on Earth

97.5% Seawater; 2.5% freshwater

Ways to conserve water

drip/trickle irrigation; Industry: recycling; Home: use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures, different types of yard (zeroscape not planting Kentucky Blue grass), time of day watering...

Gray Water

Any wastewater from a house EXCEPT TOILIET WATER; (dish water, shower water...) this water can be used for irrigation water...

Aquaculture

farming aquatic species, commonly salmon, shrimp, tilapia, oysters

Point Source

source from specific location such as pipe or smokestack

Non-point Source: (Area/Dispersed Source)

source spread over an area such as agricultural/feedlot runoff, urban runoff, and traffic runoff

Primary Sewage Treatment

first step of sewage treatment; eliminates most particulate material from raw sewage using grates, screens, and gravity (settling).

Secondary Sewage Treatment

second step of sewage treatment; bacteria breakdown organic waste; aeration accelerates the process.

BOD: (Biological Oxygen Demand)

amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials

Eutrophication

rapid algal growth (algal bloom) caused by an excess of nitrogen and phosphorous, blocks sunlight, causing the death/decomposition of aquatic plants, decreasing dissolved oxygen (DO), suffocating fish. The rapid growth is caused by an excess nitrates (NO3)-1, and phosphates (PO4)3- in water.

Hypoxia

water with very low dissolved oxygen levels, the end result is eutrophication. The BOD rises as aerobic decomposers breakdown the plants , the dissolved oxygen (DO) drops and the water cannot support life.

Fecal coliform (Enterrococus bacteria

Coccus (round shaped bacteria); indicator of sewage contamination (Happens over the summer at Chatfield or Cherry Creek Reservoir once in a while.)

Chlorine

Good: disinfection of water; Bad: forms trihalomethanes (this group of compounds are byproducts of chlorination and are known carcinogens)

Minamata Disease

(1932-1968 Japan) mental impairments caused by methylmercury (CH3Hg)+1 poisoning

CAFÉ standards

Corporate Average Fuel Economy : standards enacted into law in 1975, established fuel efficiency standards for passenger cars and light trucks. The fuel economy ratings fro a manufacture's entire line of passenger cars must currently average at least 27.6 mpg for the manufacturer to comply with the standard.

Primary Air Pollutants

produced by human and nature (CO, CO2, SOx NOx,hydrocarbons, particulates)

Secondary Pollutants

formed by reaction of primary pollutants.

Particulate Matter

**a.  Source:**  burning fossil fuels and diesel exhaust

**b.  Effects:**  reduces visibility and respiratory irritation

**c.  Reduction:**  filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy

Nitrogen Oxides: (NOx)

**a.  Source :**  auto exhaust

**b.  Effects:**  acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog and ozone 

**c.  Equation For Acid Formation:**  NO + O2   🡪 NO2  + H2O 🡪 HNO3

\
**d.  Reduction:**  Catalytic Converter

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

\
**a.  Source:**  combustion of fossil fuels

**b.  Effects:**  greenhouse gas—contributes to global warming

**c.  Reduction:**  accomplished by increased fuel efficiency (gas mileage) mass transit (reduction) 

  **Sulfur Oxides:   (SOx)**

**a.  Source:**  coal burning

**b.  Effects:**  acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants

**c.  Equation for acid formation:**  SO2 +O2🡪 SO3 + H2O 🡪 H2SO4

\
**d.  Reduction:**  scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuels