PE - Skill Aquisition

Definition of skill

The learnt ability to bring about pre-determined results with maximum certainty, often, with the minimum outlay of time or energy or both as a result of evaluating information and decision making.

Definition of ability

The innate capability or potential of a person to do something.

Definition of learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience

Definition of performance

Demonstration of learning in a specific situation

Definition of perceptual skills

How well we select, organise and recognise info from our senses. Built on perceptual abilities. Eg. the speed of the incoming ball or the position of teammates

Definition of cognitive skills

Often referred to as intellectual skills as they involve thought processes such as decision making, reasoning eg. deciding whether to pass or dribble ball or deciding the pace in a race.

Definition of gross motor skill

Muscular movements that involve large muscle groups eg. running or swimming.

Definition of psychomotor skill

Combination of perceptual, cognitive and gross motor skills (to varying degrees)

Characteristics of a skilful performance

Goal Directed - have an objective/predetermined, not luck
Learned - Not innate
Aesthetically Pleasing - Look good/flow well/ well timed
Consistently Successful - Achieve objective/ copy model
Efficient - Doesn't waste time or energy
Use of correct technique at right time and place
Result of evaluating information (perception) and making a correct decision (cognition)

What is pacing

The level of control the performer has over the timing of the movement skill, relating to when the movement starts and the rate at which it is performed.

What is internally paced

The performer decides when to start movement at the speed at which it is carried out (often closed skills) eg. high jump

What is externally paced

The timing of a skill is determined by the environment such as the starting gun, opponents or the weather. They are often open skills and involve reacting to the situation eg. swimming start

What is complexity

The difficulty level of a skill

What is a sub-routine

The seperate movements that make up the overall skill

What is a simple skill

Few sub routines, not much information to process and few decisions to make eg sprinting

Complex skill

Involves a large number of sub routines and there is more information processing and decision making required. eg. Tennis serve

Organisation skill

How easily can a skill be broken down into it's subroutines

Low organisation skill

The subroutines can be easily broken down and might be practiced separately to make technique better

High organisation skill

The subroutines involved cannot be broken down easily and practiced separately as they are linked closely together.

Discrete skill

Clear beginning and end

Serial skill

Have a number of discrete elements that are linked in a definite order to make a movement or a sequence eg. triple jump

Continuous skill

Have no definite beginning or end. The end of one movement is the start of the next eg. swimming or cycling

Fine motor skill

Involve small muscle groups and intricate movements. They usually involve accuracy and hand-eye coordination eg darts

Environmental continuum

How the environmental conditions affect the skill, it includes all factors that affect the performance in that situation eg opponents, teammates, playing surface

Open skill

Affected by the environment and have to be adapted to suit the situation. Involve a high level of perceptual and cognitive skill. Are usually externally paced

Closed skill

Are not affected by the environment and are always performed in the same way. They follow a set technical model and are usually self-paced eg vault in gymnastics

Reinforcement theory

- Started by Skinner
- We are presented with a stimulus and we arrive at a particular response through trial and error
- When we do this a stimulus-response bond is formed
- Over time we become conditioned/shaped to give a particular response to a particular stimulus
- The strength of the bond can be manipulated by controlling the external environment

How to adjust strength of SR bond

- Reinforcement always strengthens the SR bond
- Positive reinforcement is giving a reward for a correct response to a stimulus eg. praise
- Negative reinforcement is removing something unpleasant after a correct response eg crowd stops booing when player makes a good tackle
- Punishment always weakens the SR bond. It is an unpleasant action used to reduce/eliminate certain behaviours .eg. A yellow card is issued to a player for talking back to the referee.

Shaping

Refers to the gradual use of reinforcement over time to encourage particular behaviours and the use of punishment to discourage others, taking the learner gradually closer to the desired behaviour.

Are there any criticisms of reinforcement theory?

- It suggests we respond to a stimulus without much thought
- The learner is not required to understand why they do something, this could be demotivating and if the stimulus changes slightly from those already experienced the lack of understanding on the performers part will mean they don't know what to do.
- Neither negative reinforcement or punishment are ideal for helping beginners learn a new skill
- We would not have the memory capacity to store the large number of SR responses required if operant conditioning was the only way we learnt.

What is the drive reduction theory

- By Hull
- Proposes that humans possess instinctive desires aka drives for things like food, shelter and love
- When things are missing, human beings will be motivated to reduce these drives by certain actions/behaviours eg. if a person is hungry they will be demotivated to go and eat.
- Conditioning theorists use this theory to explain the success of reinforcement techniques.

What is the observational learning theory

- Developed by Bandura
- Suggested we learn by watching and copying/imitating the attitude and behaviour of others (modelling)
- Example of social learning theory
- Most often happens through visual learning

What are the processes if someone is to learn from demonstration

Attention - The performer must attend the demonstration. They must be able to see it/ watch it (more likely if high status role model)
Retention - The visual model must be retained in memory otherwise performance will not be possible. Can take place through practice or mental practice. Feedback will help too
Motor reproduction - The learn must have reached a stage of sufficient

What are some causes of plateau

• Inappropriate goals

• Underperformance of teammates

• Boredom

• Lack of motivation

• Poor technique

• Fatigue

• Quality of feedback

• Poor coaching

• Injury

• Hit max performance

• Undertraining

• Overtraining

What are some solutions to plateau

• Rest and recovery

• Finding fun in sport again

• Variation in training

• Mental rehearsal

• Set SMART goals

• Improve technique

• Change in coaches

• Rewards

• Appropriate competition

• Appropriate training

What is a cognitive learner

Performer is trying to understand the task and attempting to build a mental model of what is required. A lot of conscious thought and attention is required.

What are some problems a cognitive learner can face

• Information overload

• Coordinating responses

• Selective attention

What type of guidance is best for a cognitive performer

Verbal guidance - limited, simple, clear, concise

Visual guidance - To assist with formation of a mental model

Manual - might be required depending on skill

What type of feedback is best for a cognitive performer

Extrinsic - performer doesn’t know how to correct their mistakes

Positive - To maintain motivation

Knowledge of results

Terminal - To avoid information overload

What is an associative learner

Known as the practice/ improvement phase

Improvement takes place quickly at this stage

Motor programmes are being developed and refined

Skills can be practiced in a variety of situations

Longer than cognitive phase

What type of feedback is best for an associative performer

More detailed

Concurrent and internal feedback

More negative as needs to have error detection and correction

What type of guidance is best for associative performer

They can tolerate more detailed or complex guidance

What is an autonomous performer

A performer with a high level of skill. Movements are smooth, efficient, consistent, accurate.

Movements are almost automated, allowing performer to consider tactical elements of performance.

Skill improvements continue at slow rates (risk of plateau)

Feedback type for autonomous performer

Intrinsic, negative, knowledge of performance, concurrent

What is transfer of learning

When one skill influences the learning of another

Pro-active transfer

The learning of an old skill impacts the learning of a new skill

Retro-active transfer

The learning of a new skill impacts the learning of an old skill

Positive transfer

The effect of a previously-learned skill or practiced skill helps the learning of another. There are similarities between perceptual, cognitive or motor demands between these activities. eg cricket ball throw → javelin. Tennis coordination → badminton coordination

Negative transfer

The effect of a previously learned/practiced skill hinders the learning or performance of another

Zero transfer

When there is no effect on current performance or learning from previous experience. Perceptual, cognitive and motor skills are completely different from one situation to the next.

Bilateral transfer

Transfer learning from one side of the body to the other. eg learning to kick with left foot when dominant is right

How can transfer be encouraged

• More likely if basic movement skills mastered

• Once basics are mastered, more variety in training experiences will aid transfer

• Clear guidance from coach (should highlight similarities/differences between sports)

• Performer should understand the principle of transfer and should be involved in the analysis of the skill

• Practice needs to be realistic/similar to competitive scenario

• Reinforcement should be used when positive transfer occurs

What is visual guidance

Providing a demonstration to build a mental picture.

What must happen to make visual guidance useful

• Must be technically accurate

• Consider what level of learner is being taught

• Higher status models more likely to be copied

• Make sure everyone can see demonstration

What is verbal guidance

Giving an explanation (listen and copy)

What should happen to make verbal guidance useful

• Ensure language is appropriate for learner

• Caution around boredom and information overload

• Can’t use visual or verbal on their own

What is manual guidance

Physically assist a performance

What must happen to make manual and mechanical guidance useful

• Removed quickly or else learner is reliant

• Make sure movements are accurate

What is mechanical guidance

Use of equipment or technology in order to teach a skill (kinaesthetic)

Intrinsic feedback

From within the performer

Extrinsic feedback

From outside the performer

Positive feedback

Feedback on the aspects of performance which have been successful

Negative feedback

Feedback on the aspects of performance which have been unsuccessful

Knowledge of results

Feedback on the outcome of performance

Knowledge of performance

Feedback on the quality of the performance eg technique

Terminal feedback

Feedback at the end of the performance

Concurrent feedback

Feedback during a performance

Whole practice

Performer attempts complete movement of patterns after watching or listening to demonstration

What is whole practice ideal for

Simple/rapid/ballistic movements eg golf swing

When performer is experienced, can pay attention and is motivated

What does whole practice allow the performer to do

Performer can gain kinaesthetic feel for movement

Links between sub routines can be developed

Motor programmes to be developed in memory

Easier transfer to game

Why should you not use whole training

• Difficult for complex skills

• May be difficult for novices to execute initially

  Can cause information overload

• Not ideal for dangerous skills

What is part practice

Performer attempts sub routines in isolation

What is part training ideal for

• Skills that can be broken down (low organisation)

• Complex skills

• Long sequence skills eg gymnastics routine

Who is part training useful for

A performer who has little attention, motivation and inexperience

What does part training allow

• Specific techniques to be developed

• Performer to experience success and develop confidence

What is the difficulty for part training

• Transfer from part to whole can be difficult

• Time consuming

• Reduces kinaesthetic feel for whole movement

• Con hinder development of timing within a skill

What is whole-part-whole training

Performer attempts complete skill initially, then a sub routine of the skill, then the complete skill again

Why is whole-part-whole training ideal

• Get a kinaesthetic feel

• Identify areas for improvement

• Focus on area of improvement

• Build confidence

What is progressive part practice

Learn first stage, then add second stage. Like “chaining”

What is progressive part practice ideal for

• Skills that can be broken down (low organisation)

• Teaching serial skills

• Teaching for dangerous activities

Who is progressive part practice ideal for

• Performers in early stage of leaning

• Has limited motivation and attention span

What does progressive part practice allow

Gradual learning of skill

What is the disadvantage of progressive part practice

Time consuming

What is massed practice

Continuous practice without rest

What is distributed practice

Practice with rest intervals built in

Fixed practice

Repetition of a skill under constant conditions

Variable practice

Practicing a skill under changing conditions

What are breaks used for

• Rest and recovery

• Additional guidance and feedback

• Hydration

• Tedium reduction

• Mental rehearsal

When would you use massed practice

• Experienced/autonomous learners

• Fit performer

• Highly motivated player

• Simple/discrete/fine skill

• Limited time

• Quick skill

• Not dangerous

When would you use distributed practice

• Novice performer

• Less fit

• Less motivated performer

• Complex/continuous/gross skills

• Plenty of time is available

• Long-lasting skills

• Potentially dangerous