Studied by 6 people
Definition of skill
The learnt ability to bring about pre-determined results with maximum certainty, often, with the minimum outlay of time or energy or both as a result of evaluating information and decision making.
Definition of ability
The innate capability or potential of a person to do something.
Definition of learning
A relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience
Definition of performance
Demonstration of learning in a specific situation
Definition of perceptual skills
How well we select, organise and recognise info from our senses. Built on perceptual abilities. Eg. the speed of the incoming ball or the position of teammates
Definition of cognitive skills
Often referred to as intellectual skills as they involve thought processes such as decision making, reasoning eg. deciding whether to pass or dribble ball or deciding the pace in a race.
Definition of gross motor skill
Muscular movements that involve large muscle groups eg. running or swimming.
Definition of psychomotor skill
Combination of perceptual, cognitive and gross motor skills (to varying degrees)
Characteristics of a skilful performance
Goal Directed - have an objective/predetermined, not luck
Learned - Not innate
Aesthetically Pleasing - Look good/flow well/ well timed
Consistently Successful - Achieve objective/ copy model
Efficient - Doesn't waste time or energy
Use of correct technique at right time and place
Result of evaluating information (perception) and making a correct decision (cognition)
What is pacing
The level of control the performer has over the timing of the movement skill, relating to when the movement starts and the rate at which it is performed.
What is internally paced
The performer decides when to start movement at the speed at which it is carried out (often closed skills) eg. high jump
What is externally paced
The timing of a skill is determined by the environment such as the starting gun, opponents or the weather. They are often open skills and involve reacting to the situation eg. swimming start
What is complexity
The difficulty level of a skill
What is a sub-routine
The seperate movements that make up the overall skill
What is a simple skill
Few sub routines, not much information to process and few decisions to make eg sprinting
Complex skill
Involves a large number of sub routines and there is more information processing and decision making required. eg. Tennis serve
Organisation skill
How easily can a skill be broken down into it's subroutines
Low organisation skill
The subroutines can be easily broken down and might be practiced separately to make technique better
High organisation skill
The subroutines involved cannot be broken down easily and practiced separately as they are linked closely together.
Discrete skill
Clear beginning and end
Serial skill
Have a number of discrete elements that are linked in a definite order to make a movement or a sequence eg. triple jump
Continuous skill
Have no definite beginning or end. The end of one movement is the start of the next eg. swimming or cycling
Fine motor skill
Involve small muscle groups and intricate movements. They usually involve accuracy and hand-eye coordination eg darts
Environmental continuum
How the environmental conditions affect the skill, it includes all factors that affect the performance in that situation eg opponents, teammates, playing surface
Open skill
Affected by the environment and have to be adapted to suit the situation. Involve a high level of perceptual and cognitive skill. Are usually externally paced
Closed skill
Are not affected by the environment and are always performed in the same way. They follow a set technical model and are usually self-paced eg vault in gymnastics
Reinforcement theory
- Started by Skinner
- We are presented with a stimulus and we arrive at a particular response through trial and error
- When we do this a stimulus-response bond is formed
- Over time we become conditioned/shaped to give a particular response to a particular stimulus
- The strength of the bond can be manipulated by controlling the external environment
How to adjust strength of SR bond
- Reinforcement always strengthens the SR bond
- Positive reinforcement is giving a reward for a correct response to a stimulus eg. praise
- Negative reinforcement is removing something unpleasant after a correct response eg crowd stops booing when player makes a good tackle
- Punishment always weakens the SR bond. It is an unpleasant action used to reduce/eliminate certain behaviours .eg. A yellow card is issued to a player for talking back to the referee.
Shaping
Refers to the gradual use of reinforcement over time to encourage particular behaviours and the use of punishment to discourage others, taking the learner gradually closer to the desired behaviour.
Are there any criticisms of reinforcement theory?
- It suggests we respond to a stimulus without much thought
- The learner is not required to understand why they do something, this could be demotivating and if the stimulus changes slightly from those already experienced the lack of understanding on the performers part will mean they don't know what to do.
- Neither negative reinforcement or punishment are ideal for helping beginners learn a new skill
- We would not have the memory capacity to store the large number of SR responses required if operant conditioning was the only way we learnt.
What is the drive reduction theory
- By Hull
- Proposes that humans possess instinctive desires aka drives for things like food, shelter and love
- When things are missing, human beings will be motivated to reduce these drives by certain actions/behaviours eg. if a person is hungry they will be demotivated to go and eat.
- Conditioning theorists use this theory to explain the success of reinforcement techniques.
What is the observational learning theory
- Developed by Bandura
- Suggested we learn by watching and copying/imitating the attitude and behaviour of others (modelling)
- Example of social learning theory
- Most often happens through visual learning
What are the processes if someone is to learn from demonstration
Attention - The performer must attend the demonstration. They must be able to see it/ watch it (more likely if high status role model)
Retention - The visual model must be retained in memory otherwise performance will not be possible. Can take place through practice or mental practice. Feedback will help too
Motor reproduction - The learn must have reached a stage of sufficient
What are some causes of plateau
Inappropriate goals
Underperformance of teammates
Boredom
Lack of motivation
Poor technique
Fatigue
Quality of feedback
Poor coaching
Injury
Hit max performance
Undertraining
Overtraining
What are some solutions to plateau
Rest and recovery
Finding fun in sport again
Variation in training
Mental rehearsal
Set SMART goals
Improve technique
Change in coaches
Rewards
Appropriate competition
Appropriate training
What is a cognitive learner
Performer is trying to understand the task and attempting to build a mental model of what is required. A lot of conscious thought and attention is required.
What are some problems a cognitive learner can face
Information overload
Coordinating responses
Selective attention
What type of guidance is best for a cognitive performer
Verbal guidance - limited, simple, clear, concise
Visual guidance - To assist with formation of a mental model
Manual - might be required depending on skill
What type of feedback is best for a cognitive performer
Extrinsic - performer doesn’t know how to correct their mistakes
Positive - To maintain motivation
Knowledge of results
Terminal - To avoid information overload
What is an associative learner
Known as the practice/ improvement phase
Improvement takes place quickly at this stage
Motor programmes are being developed and refined
Skills can be practiced in a variety of situations
Longer than cognitive phase
What type of feedback is best for an associative performer
More detailed
Concurrent and internal feedback
More negative as needs to have error detection and correction
What type of guidance is best for associative performer
They can tolerate more detailed or complex guidance
What is an autonomous performer
A performer with a high level of skill. Movements are smooth, efficient, consistent, accurate.
Movements are almost automated, allowing performer to consider tactical elements of performance.
Skill improvements continue at slow rates (risk of plateau)
Feedback type for autonomous performer
Intrinsic, negative, knowledge of performance, concurrent
What is transfer of learning
When one skill influences the learning of another
Pro-active transfer
The learning of an old skill impacts the learning of a new skill
Retro-active transfer
The learning of a new skill impacts the learning of an old skill
Positive transfer
The effect of a previously-learned skill or practiced skill helps the learning of another. There are similarities between perceptual, cognitive or motor demands between these activities. eg cricket ball throw → javelin. Tennis coordination → badminton coordination
Negative transfer
The effect of a previously learned/practiced skill hinders the learning or performance of another
Zero transfer
When there is no effect on current performance or learning from previous experience. Perceptual, cognitive and motor skills are completely different from one situation to the next.
Bilateral transfer
Transfer learning from one side of the body to the other. eg learning to kick with left foot when dominant is right
How can transfer be encouraged
More likely if basic movement skills mastered
Once basics are mastered, more variety in training experiences will aid transfer
Clear guidance from coach (should highlight similarities/differences between sports)
Performer should understand the principle of transfer and should be involved in the analysis of the skill
Practice needs to be realistic/similar to competitive scenario
Reinforcement should be used when positive transfer occurs
What is visual guidance
Providing a demonstration to build a mental picture.
What must happen to make visual guidance useful
Must be technically accurate
Consider what level of learner is being taught
Higher status models more likely to be copied
Make sure everyone can see demonstration
What is verbal guidance
Giving an explanation (listen and copy)
What should happen to make verbal guidance useful
Ensure language is appropriate for learner
Caution around boredom and information overload
Can’t use visual or verbal on their own
What is manual guidance
Physically assist a performance
What must happen to make manual and mechanical guidance useful
Removed quickly or else learner is reliant
Make sure movements are accurate
What is mechanical guidance
Use of equipment or technology in order to teach a skill (kinaesthetic)
Intrinsic feedback
From within the performer
Extrinsic feedback
From outside the performer
Positive feedback
Feedback on the aspects of performance which have been successful
Negative feedback
Feedback on the aspects of performance which have been unsuccessful
Knowledge of results
Feedback on the outcome of performance
Knowledge of performance
Feedback on the quality of the performance eg technique
Terminal feedback
Feedback at the end of the performance
Concurrent feedback
Feedback during a performance
Whole practice
Performer attempts complete movement of patterns after watching or listening to demonstration
What is whole practice ideal for
Simple/rapid/ballistic movements eg golf swing
When performer is experienced, can pay attention and is motivated
What does whole practice allow the performer to do
Performer can gain kinaesthetic feel for movement
Links between sub routines can be developed
Motor programmes to be developed in memory
Easier transfer to game
Why should you not use whole training
Difficult for complex skills
May be difficult for novices to execute initially
Can cause information overload
Not ideal for dangerous skills
What is part practice
Performer attempts sub routines in isolation
What is part training ideal for
Skills that can be broken down (low organisation)
Complex skills
Long sequence skills eg gymnastics routine
Who is part training useful for
A performer who has little attention, motivation and inexperience
What does part training allow
Specific techniques to be developed
Performer to experience success and develop confidence
What is the difficulty for part training
Transfer from part to whole can be difficult
Time consuming
Reduces kinaesthetic feel for whole movement
Con hinder development of timing within a skill
What is whole-part-whole training
Performer attempts complete skill initially, then a sub routine of the skill, then the complete skill again
Why is whole-part-whole training ideal
Get a kinaesthetic feel
Identify areas for improvement
Focus on area of improvement
Build confidence
What is progressive part practice
Learn first stage, then add second stage. Like “chaining”
What is progressive part practice ideal for
Skills that can be broken down (low organisation)
Teaching serial skills
Teaching for dangerous activities
Who is progressive part practice ideal for
Performers in early stage of leaning
Has limited motivation and attention span
What does progressive part practice allow
Gradual learning of skill
What is the disadvantage of progressive part practice
Time consuming
What is massed practice
Continuous practice without rest
What is distributed practice
Practice with rest intervals built in
Fixed practice
Repetition of a skill under constant conditions
Variable practice
Practicing a skill under changing conditions
What are breaks used for
Rest and recovery
Additional guidance and feedback
Hydration
Tedium reduction
Mental rehearsal
When would you use massed practice
Experienced/autonomous learners
Fit performer
Highly motivated player
Simple/discrete/fine skill
Limited time
Quick skill
Not dangerous
When would you use distributed practice
Novice performer
Less fit
Less motivated performer
Complex/continuous/gross skills
Plenty of time is available
Long-lasting skills
Potentially dangerous
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Flashcard (33)