AP Psych U2P1 (2.1. 2.2, 2.3)

Perception

the process by which our brains interpret the sensory information we receive from the world around us

Bottom-Up Processing

the brain uses objective information, such as shape, color, etc. to figure out the meaning of things

Top-Down Processing

The brain relies on prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences to interpret sensory information

Schema

They are mental frameworks that organize knowledge and shape perception. They work as filters, influencing how the brain interprets information based on past experiences.

Perceptual Set

Our tendency to perceive something as one thing and not another based on our schemas, the context, and our immediate expectations.

Gestalt Psychology

It describes the ways our brains naturally organize visual information and gravitate towards good forms do that the resultant perception is biased towards what is ideal.

Closure

One of Gestalt’s Principles of Perception; Our brain finishes unfinished objects subconsciously to create a complete, recognizable object.

Figure and Ground

One of Gestalt’s Principles of Perception; The brain organizes visual information into distinct, meaningful figures and backgrounds.

Proximity

One of Gestalt’s Principles of Perception; Objects placed near each other tend to be perceived as one group.

Similarity

One of Gestalt’s Principles of Perception; Objects similar in appearance are perceives as belonging together.

Attention

The brain selectively focuses its awareness on a particular stimulus or aspect of the environment. Think of a spotlight!

Selective Attention

our ability to focus on one particular task or stimulus among many competing stimuli

Cocktail Party Effect

Our ability to focus on a particular conversation in a noisy environment, even when other conversations are taking place around us.

Inattentional Blindness

The failure to notice unexpected stimuli in our environment when our attention is focused on something else

Change Blindness

The failure to detect changes in a scene when our attention is diverted

Binocular Depth Cues

These are visual cues that rely on BOTH eyes to perceive depth.

Retinal Disparity

One of the binocular depth cues; Takes account of the disparate images of each retina. Objects closer to one’s eyes have a greater difference of image between the left and right eye than objects farther away do.

Convergence

One of the binocular depth cues; The eyes turn towards each other when an object is closer towards the viewer.

Monocular Depth Cues

Visual cues that can be used to perceive depth with only one eye

Relative Clarity

Monocular Depth Cue; Near or Far? The perception that objects closer to us appear more clear than objects farther away.

Relative Size

Monocular Depth Cue; Big or Small? The perception that objects farther away appear smaller in our visual field than objects closer to us

Texture Gradient

Monocular Depth Cue; The texture of a surface blurs in the distance

Linear Perspective

Monocular Depth Cue; This is produced by the apparent converging of parallel lines in the distance

Interposition

Monocular Depth Cue; An object overlapping another object is perceiver as closer than the object it is covering.

Perceptual Constancies

Monocular Depth Cue; Our tendency to perceive objects as having consistent properties, such as size, shape, and color, even when visual information changes.

Apparent Movement

The perception of motion when there is none that is created by the rapid presentation of still images

Prototypes

It’s a mental standard against which we compare new things to determine category membership; best example of a particular category

Schema Assimilation

The process of fitting new information into existing schemas

Schema Accommodation

The process of ADJUSTING existing schemas to accommodate new information

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that often lead to quick solutions, but may not always be accurate

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging things based on how well they match prototypes. (Ex: stereotypes)

Availability Heuristic

Basing judgments based on how mentally available information appears in the mind. Regency, vividness, and distinctiveness can increase chances

Mental Set

A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences.

Priming

A technique whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention.

Framing

A cognitive bias that occurs when people’s decisions are influenced based on the presentation of information rather than the actual content.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The belief that past events influence future independent events.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

The tendency to continue investing in something because of the resources already invested, even if it is no longer beneficial

Executive Functions

A set of cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, organize, and regulate their behavior in order to achieve goals.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. It involves thinking in new ways, breaking patterns, and generating original solutions.

Divergent Thinking

A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions. (Think of an FRQ test)

Convergent Thinking

A type of thinking that involves narrowing down possibilities to find a single, correct answer. (Think of an MCQ test)

Functional Fixedness

The inability to perceive a new use for a physical object associated with a different purpose; A form of mental set

Storage

The process of maintaining information in memory

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a memory that can be stored and retrieved by the brain

Retrieval

The process of accessing information from memory

Explicit Memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled.

(Think of EXPLICITLY stating something. You can describe it in detail)

Implicit Memory

A broad category of memory that is not consciously recalled. (Ex: brushing your teeth, priming)

Think of implicit differentiation! You use the power-rule without thinking instead of the full process using the definition of a limit

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences (A type of explicit memory)

Semantic Memory

The memory of facts, concepts, and general knowledge (a type of explicit memory)

Procedural Memory

memory of skills and habits (a specific type of implicit memory)

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform intended actions that will occur in the future or future events

Long-Term Potentiation

The strengthening of neural connections

Working Memory

Mental workspace to think; Holds 7 ± 2 items; Short-term memory that actively processes information

Primary Memory System

The processes and structures involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information in the brain

Central Executive

The part of working memory that controls attention and coordinates information processing

Phonological Loop

The part of working memory that processes verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information

Multi-Store Model

Information flows through 3 distinct memory stores: Sensory memory (initial gateway), Short-Term memory (temporary workspace), Long-Term memory (extended periods)

Sensory Memory

The initial stage of memory that briefly stores sensory information. (Impressions last for only a fraction of a second)

Iconic Memory

Sensory information of visual information

Echoic Memory

sensory memory for auditory information

Short-Term Memory

memory that holds a limited amount of information for a short period of time

Long-Term Memory

Memory that stores information for an extended period of time

Automatic Processing

information that requires minimal attention to move through the multi-store memory

Effortful Processing

information that requires conscious focus to be processed

Levels of Processing Model

The retention of memory is determined by how deeply information is processed during encoding.

Shallow Encoding

encoding information based on superficial or basic characteristics, requiring little cognitive effort

Deep Encoding

encoding information based on its meaning, connecting it to existing knowledge and past experience

Structural Encoding

processing the physical appearance of the word or object

Phonemic Encoding

processing the sound of the word

Semantic Encoding

analyzing the full context and meaning of the information

Episodic Buffer

It is a component of working memory that integrated memory from different sources into a single, coherent episode or experience. It works as a temporary storage system that allows for the manipulation and retrieval of this integrated information.