AP psych quarter 2 (units 0, 1 , 2)

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

confirmation bias

tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct. overestimating the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments

empirical evidence

information acquired by observation or experimentation

scientific method

systematic approach to research where a problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated, and the hypothesis is tested

hypothesis

testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifiable

capable of being disproved by experimental results

peer review

process by which something proposed for research or publication is evaluated by a group of experts in that field

replication

action of repeating a study, using the same methods to see if the original results can be consistently reproduced

reliability

consistency of a research study or measuring test

validity

extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

american psychological association (APA)

professional organization representing psychologists in the US

quantitative data

descriptive information

• interviews, focus groups, artistic depictions like photos

likert scale

psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, most widely used scale in survey research

• not likely, neutral, likely

structured interviews

quantitative research method where interviewer asks set sequence of questions

survey technique

research technique involving the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions

wording effect

effect that question phrasing and order has on survey data

social desirability bias

tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself

naturalistic observation

observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation or control by the researcher

case study

in-depth study of a single person, group, event, or community

correlational research

type of non-experimental research method, which studies relationship between two variables with the help of statistical analysis

third variable problem

form of confounding variable in which a third variable leads to a mistaken casual relationship between the two others

scatterplot

graphical representation of the values of two variables for a set of data

correlation

predict outcomes, NOT causation

correlation coefficient

statistical index of relationship between two things

-1 to +1

experimental method

method of research where researcher manipulates one variable, and controls/randomizes the rest

independent variable

variable that is manipulated/controlled by the researcher

dependent variable

variable that is tested/measured in an experiment

confounding variable

variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable, causing a spurious association

operational definition

specifically defining a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study

experimental group

group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

control group

group in an experiment that does not receive the test variable

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

experimenter bias

process where scientists performing research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome

single blind study

study where the participants do not know whether they are in the control or experimental group but the researchers do

double blind study

study in which neither participants or experimenters know how is receiving particular treatment

placebo condition

condition in which treatment is not administered but the subject believes that it is administered

sample

subset of individuals from a larger population, used to conduct research

representative sample

sample that accurately reflects characteristic of the population as a whole

random sample

sample the fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

sample bias

bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others

generalizeability

extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or extended to others

statistics

branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data

descriptive statistics

statistics that summarize the data collected in a study

inferential statistics

statistics that allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population based on a sample of data

measure of central tendency

statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution

mean

average of a set of numerical values

median

middle value in a list of numbers

mode

value that appears most often in a set of data

range

difference between highest and lowest values in a dataset

normal curve

bell shaped curve that represents a distribution of values, frequencies, or probabilities so that most measurements are concentrated around the middle

regression to the mean

phenomenon that if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average on its second measurement

positive skew

more numbers in a list are on the lower side, but a few abnormally high values pull average to the positive side

negative skew

more numbers in a list are on the higher side, but a few abnormally low values pull average to the negative side

standard deviation

measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values

percentile rank

percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it

bimodal distribution

distribution that shows two different peaks or modes in the frequency of occurrences

statistical significance

if an experiment is probably true or happened by chance. checks if results from experiment would happen often or are rare

effect sizes

measures how big the impact of something is on an experiment. example: how much of an effect a medicine had vs not using at all

meta analysis

statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple studies

institutional review boards (IRB)

committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects, ensuring that ethical standards are met

informed consent

permission granted with the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the possible risks/benefits

informed assent

agreement by a minor or other parties unable to give legal consent to participate in an activity

confidentiality

requirement that private/sensitive information is not disclosed without the consent of the person who provided it

deception

act of misleading or wrongly informing someone about the true nature of a situation

confederates

individuals who appear to be participants in a study but are actually part of the research team

debriefing

providing participants in a study with a full explanation of the study after its completion, including the purpose and any deception used

evolutionary perspective

looks at how human behaviors helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

natural selection

process where traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently

nature

influence of genetic factors on traits and behaviors

nurture

influence of environmental factors on traits/behaviors

twin studies

research comparing similarities between identical/fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetic versus environment

adoption studies

studies that compare biologically related people, including those raised apart, to understand genetic influences

family studies

research looking at behavioral traits in families to determine how much is genetic versus environmental

heredity

passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes

genetic predisposition

likelihood of developing certain traits or disorders based on genetics

eugenics

controversial/unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic composition of humans through selective breeding

cerebral cortex

outer layer of the brain, involved in complex mental processes such as thinking

lobes of the brain

divisions of the brain based on function and location

• frontal

• parietal

• occipital

• temporal

frontal lobes

involved in decision making, problem-solving, and controlling behavior

prefrontal cortex

part of the frontal lobe involved in planning complex behaviors and expressing personality

executive functioning

higher order processes including planning, organizing, and regulating behavior

motor cortex

controls voluntary movements

parietal lobes

processes sensory information like touch and spatial awareness

somatosensory cortex

area of the brain that processes sensory input from various body parts

occipital lobes

responsible for vision

temporal lobes

involved in hearing, memory, and understanding language

corpus callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres

brainstem

supports basic life functions, including heart rate, breathing, and sleeping

medulla

part of the brain stem controlling vital life-sustaining functions like heartbeat and breathing

reticular activating system

regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions

cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movements like posture, balance, and coordination

limbic system

involved in emotion, motivation, and memory

reward center

brain areas that regulate the experience of pleasure

thalamus

relays motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex

hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and other homeostatic systems

pituitary gland

master gland of endocrine system that regulates other glands

hippocampus

essential for learning/memory

amygdala

involved in emotion processing, particularly fear and aggression