IB HL History

Japanese expansionism (1931–41)

Caused by economic need for resources, political rise of militarist factions, belief in superiority, and nationalism.

Manchurian Crisis (1931)

Japan invaded Manchuria; established Manchukuo; League of Nations condemned but did not intervene.

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937)

Full-scale war with China resulting in atrocities like the Nanjing Massacre and international condemnation.

Hitler's justification for German expansionism

Lebensraum, reversal of the Versailles Treaty, anti-communism, unification of German-speaking peoples.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936)

Violated the Versailles Treaty; went unopposed by Britain and France, enabling further Nazi aggression.

Sudeten Crisis (1938)

Hitler demanded Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia; appeasement pursued at Munich Conference.

Abyssinian Crisis (1935)

Mussolini invaded Ethiopia to expand the Italian Empire; League of Nations' ineffective sanctions.

Nationalism and militarism in Italy

Mussolini’s promotion of Roman imperial glory and war to distract from domestic issues.

Great Depression's impact on expansionism

Increased militarism and nationalism; governments sought resources and unity through expansion.

Responses of the League of Nations and US

Ineffective; League had no enforcement power, US isolationism, Britain appeasement.

Treaty of Versailles and German aggression

Harsh terms created resentment; Hitler used it to gain support for rearmament.

Key skills in Paper 1 source analysis

OPVL: Origin, Purpose, Value, Limitation – analyzing bias, context, and usefulness.

Yalta Conference outcomes

Plans for post-war Europe and creation of the UN.

Potsdam Conference outcomes

Divisions over Germany and tensions due to atomic bomb and differing ideologies.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

US commitment to contain communism by supporting nations resisting Soviet influence.

Berlin Blockade (1948–49)

USSR blocked Allied access to West Berlin; led to the Berlin Airlift as a response.

Korean War trigger (1950–53)

North Korea invaded South Korea; UN/US intervened, leading to stalemate.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

USSR placed missiles in Cuba, leading to US blockade and eventual Soviet withdrawal.

Significance of Vietnam War

Demonstrated limits of US power; ended with North Vietnam's victory in 1975.

SALT (1972)

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks; US and USSR agreed to limit nuclear weapons.

Gorbachev's contribution to Cold War end

Introduced reforms (glasnost, perestroika), withdrew from Afghanistan, encouraged disarmament.

Ideological conflict in Cold War

Defined foreign policy as a clash of capitalism vs. communism, shaping alliances and interventions.

Role of nuclear weapons in Cold War

Maintained peace via MAD; led to arms race and diplomatic tension.

Causes of the Civil War

Slavery, states' rights, economic differences, breakdown of political compromise.

Emancipation Proclamation significance

Freed slaves in Confederate states, provided a moral cause for the Union.

Key Reconstruction policies

Freedmen’s Bureau, Civil Rights Acts, and amendments faced resistance from Black Codes.

Causes of Great Depression

Stock market crash, banking failures, overproduction, and weak global trade.

Key New Deal programs

CCC, WPA, SSA, FDIC, TVA aimed at relief, recovery, and reform.

Opposition to the New Deal

Conservatives found it too government-heavy; radicals thought it didn't redistribute enough.

Civil rights milestones (1954–1970s)

Brown v. Board, Montgomery Bus Boycott, Civil Rights Act, Voting Rights Act, March on Washington.

MLK Jr. vs Malcolm X's approaches

MLK advocated nonviolence and integration; Malcolm X supported self-defense and separation initially.

Significance of Spanish-American War (1898)

US gained territories, marking the start of American imperialism.

US actions in Latin America during Cold War

Interventions to prevent communism, e.g. Cuba, Guatemala, Chile.

Common rise to power methods for authoritarian leaders

Exploiting crises, propaganda, violence, legal appointments, and revolutionary movements.

Use of propaganda in authoritarian states

Cult of personality, censorship, media control; examples from Hitler, Mao, and Stalin.

Impact of authoritarian states on women and minorities

Varied; e.g. Nazi gender roles, Mao's gender equality efforts, Stalin's marginalization.

What was the initial US response to Castro's regime?

The US initially recognized Castro's government but relations quickly deteriorated as Castro implemented socialist policies, nationalized American-owned businesses, and aligned Cuba with the Soviet Union.

What actions did the US take in response to Castro's policies?

The US imposed an economic embargo on Cuba in 1960, which continues to this day. The embargo prohibits American companies from doing business with Cuba and restricts travel to the island.

What was the Bay of Pigs invasion?

The US government under President Eisenhower authorized the CIA to plan and execute a covert operation to overthrow Castro's government. This led to the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, a failed attempt by Cuban exiles to invade Cuba.

How did the US respond to the Cuban Missile Crisis?

The US and the Soviet Union engaged in tense negotiations to resolve the crisis, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. The US agreed to remove its nuclear missiles from Turkey in exchange for the Soviet Union's withdrawal of missiles from Cuba.

What is the significance of Guantanamo Bay?

The US has maintained a naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, since 1903. After the Cuban Revolution, Castro protested the US presence at Guantanamo Bay, calling it an illegal occupation of Cuban territory. The US continues to operate the base, which has housed detainees from the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.

"The Cold War was a product of two factors: the universalist aspirations of the United States and the messianic ambitions of the Soviet Union." - John Lewis Gaddis

What is Gaddis's view on the origins of the Cold War?

"Authoritarian regimes are characterized by a lack of political pluralism, a concentration of power in the hands of a leader or a small elite, and the use of repression to maintain order." - Juan Linz

According to Juan Linz, what are the key characteristics of authoritarian regimes?

"The Civil War was fought over slavery and states' rights." - James McPherson

What reasons does McPherson give for why the Civil War was fought?

"The American Civil War was the Second American Revolution." - Charles Beard

According to Charles Beard, what type of event was considered the American Civil War

"The Emancipation Proclamation fundamentally transformed the Civil War into a war to end slavery." – Eric Foner

How did Eric Foner view the Emancipation Proclamation’s impact on the Civil War?

"Fascism is a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood, and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity." – Robert O. Paxton

What does Robert O. Paxton identify as key features of fascist movements?

"The Cuban Missile Crisis was the most dangerous moment in human history." – Robert Kennedy

How does Robert Kennedy characterize the Cuban Missile Crisis in terms of global danger?

"The Vietnam War was not just a military conflict but a social and political one that divided America." – Stanley Karnow

How did Stanley Karnow describe the Vietnam War’s impact on American society?

"Totalitarianism is a form of government that seeks to control all aspects of public and private life." – Carl Friedrich

What is Carl Friedrich’s view on the nature of totalitarianism?

"The Cold War was a competition between two ideologies, not a conflict between two nations." – George Kennan

How did George Kennan describe the nature of the Cold War conflict?

"Mao's revolution was the culmination of a long tradition of Chinese resistance to imperialism." – Jonathan Spence

According to Jonathan Spence, how did Mao’s revolution relate to China’s historical resistance to foreign influence?

"The policy of appeasement was a failure in the face of a rising totalitarian threat." – Winston Churchill

What was Winston Churchill's assessment of the policy of appeasement during the lead-up to World War II?

"The collapse of the Soviet Union was due to both internal economic issues and the external pressure of the arms race." – Richard Pipes

According to Richard Pipes, what factors led to the collapse of the Soviet Union?

"Reconstruction was a missed opportunity for African Americans to achieve true equality in the post-war South." – Eric Foner

How does Eric Foner describe the failure of Reconstruction in terms of African American rights?

"The rise of authoritarian states is often linked to social and

According to Robert Service, what conditions often lead to the rise of authoritarian regimes?

"The Emancipation Proclamation fundamentally transformed the Civil War into a war to end slavery." – Eric Foner

How did Eric Foner view the Emancipation Proclamation’s impact on the Civil War?

"Fascism is a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood, and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity." – Robert O. Paxton

What does Robert O. Paxton identify as key features of fascist movements?

"The Cuban Missile Crisis was the most dangerous moment in human history." – Robert Kennedy

How does Robert Kennedy characterize the Cuban Missile Crisis in terms of global danger?

"The Vietnam War was not just a military conflict but a social and political one that divided America." – Stanley Karnow

How did Stanley Karnow describe the Vietnam War’s impact on American society?

"Totalitarianism is a form of government that seeks to control all aspects of public and private life." – Carl Friedrich

What is Carl Friedrich’s view on the nature of totalitarianism?

"The Cold War was a competition between two ideologies, not a conflict between two nations." – George Kennan

How did George Kennan describe the nature of the Cold War conflict?

"Mao's revolution was the culmination of a long tradition of Chinese resistance to imperialism." – Jonathan Spence

According to Jonathan Spence, how did Mao’s revolution relate to China’s historical resistance to foreign influence?

"The policy of appeasement was a failure in the face of a rising totalitarian threat." – Winston Churchill

What was Winston Churchill's assessment of the policy of appeasement during the lead-up to World War II?

"The collapse of the Soviet Union was due to both internal economic issues and the external pressure of the arms race." – Richard Pipes

According to Richard Pipes, what factors led to the collapse of the Soviet Union?

"Reconstruction was a missed opportunity for African Americans to achieve true equality in the post-war South." – Eric Foner

How does Eric Foner describe the failure of Reconstruction in terms of African American rights?

"The rise of authoritarian states is often linked to social and economic crises that weaken established political structures." – Robert Service

According to Robert Service, what conditions often lead to the rise of authoritarian regimes?

"The League of Nations was unable to stop the rise of aggressive powers in the 1930s." – AJP Taylor

What was AJP Taylor’s assessment of the League of Nations' ability to prevent the rise of aggressive powers during the interwar period?

"The policy of containment sought to prevent the spread of communism by using both diplomatic and military means." – George Kennan

What was the primary aim of the policy of containment, as described by George Kennan?

"The Berlin Blockade was one of the first major crises of the Cold War, symbolizing the division of Europe." – John Lewis Gaddis

How did John Lewis Gaddis describe the Berlin Blockade and its significance in the Cold War?

"The Sudeten Crisis was a result of Hitler’s aggressive expansionist aims and the policy of appeasement." – Keith Eubank

How does Keith Eubank link the Sudeten Crisis to Hitler’s expansionist ambitions and the policy of appeasement?

"The Cuban Missile Crisis was a turning point in the Cold War, highlighting the dangers of nuclear escalation." – Graham Allison

How does Graham Allison describe the significance of the Cuban Missile Crisis in the Cold War?

"The Treaty of Versailles was a flawed peace settlement that contributed to the rise of extremism in Germany." – Margaret MacMillan

According to Margaret MacMillan, how did the Treaty of Versailles contribute to the rise of extremism in Germany?

"FDR’s New Deal was a series of economic programs aimed at providing relief, recovery, and reform during the Great Depression." – Alan Brinkley

How did Alan Brinkley characterize the goals of FDR’s New Deal in addressing the Great Depression?

"The rise of fascist regimes in Italy, Germany, and Japan was driven by economic instability and a desire for national greatness." – Ian Kershaw

According to Ian Kershaw, what were the main factors driving the rise of fascist regimes in Italy, Germany, and Japan?

"The Anschluss of Austria in 1938 was a significant step in Hitler’s plan for European expansion." – William L. Shirer

What role did the Anschluss of Austria play in Hitler’s broader expansionist strategy, according to William L. Shirer?

"The Great Depression had a profound impact on global political dynamics, contributing to the rise of authoritarian regimes." – Charles Kindleberger

How did Charles Kindleberger link the Great Depression to the rise of authoritarian regimes?

"The Korean War was a direct result of Cold War tensions, with the US and USSR using Korea as a proxy battleground." – Bruce Cumings

How does Bruce Cumings explain the role of Cold War tensions in causing the Korean War?

"Stalin's Five-Year Plans aimed to rapidly industrialize the Soviet Union at the cost of individual freedoms." – Sheila Fitzpatrick

What was the goal of Stalin’s Five-Year Plans, and what sacrifices did they entail, according to Sheila Fitzpatrick?

"The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed by Lenin in 1918, was a strategic move to pull Russia out of World War I." – Orlando Figes

Why did Lenin sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, according to Orlando Figes?

"The Spanish-American War marked the beginning of the United States’ involvement in global imperialism." – William A. Williams

How does William A. Williams describe the significance of the Spanish-American War in the context of US foreign policy?

"The creation of NATO in 1949 was a direct response to Soviet aggression and the spread of communism." – David Reynolds

What was the purpose of NATO’s creation, according to David Reynolds?

"The Civil Rights Movement in the United States was both a response to systemic racism and an affirmation of American democratic ideals." – Taylor Branch

How does Taylor Branch characterize the Civil Rights Movement in the US?

"The Vietnam War was marked by a lack of clear objectives and the inability to win hearts and minds." – Stanley Karnow

How does Stanley Karnow describe the challenges the US faced during the Vietnam War?

"Hitler’s rise to power was the result of economic hardship, political instability, and the appeal of his nationalist and anti-Semitic rhetoric." – Ian Kershaw

According to Ian Kershaw, what were the key factors contributing to Hitler’s rise to power?

"Mao's cultural revolution sought to eliminate capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society." – Jung Chang

What was the goal of Mao’s Cultural Revolution, according to Jung Chang?

"The Cold War was not just a clash of ideologies, but also a contest for global influence, with both superpowers seeking to extend their sphere of influence." – John Gaddis

How does John Gaddis explain the Cold War in terms of global influence?

"The rise of authoritarian regimes often coincides with periods of economic crisis and political instability." – Juan J. Linz

According to Juan J. Linz, what conditions lead to the rise of authoritarian regimes?

"The Berlin Wall symbolized the ideological division of Europe and became the focal point of Cold War tensions." – David Caute

How does David Caute describe the significance of the Berlin Wall in the Cold War?

What were the key factors leading to Japanese aggression in Manchuria?

Japan’s aggression in Manchuria was driven by:

1. Economic struggles due to the Great Depression and reliance on foreign trade (especially steel, iron, and coal).
2. Desire for resources in Manchuria (food, metals, and self-sufficiency).
3. Militarism: The Kwangtung Army operated independently of the Japanese government, pursuing military glory and economic control.
4. Mukden Incident (1931) provided a pretext for invasion, blaming Chinese nationalists for the explosion of a Japanese railway.

What was the outcome of the Mukden Incident (1931)?

The Mukden Incident involved an explosion of a Japanese railway in Manchuria, which Japan blamed on Chinese nationalists. This served as justification for Japan to invade Manchuria, leading to the establishment of a Japanese puppet state, Manchukuo, with Pu Yi as its puppet emperor.

How did the League of Nations respond to Japan's invasion of Manchuria?

The League of Nations issued the Lytton Report (1932), condemning Japan’s actions and recommending its withdrawal from Manchuria. Japan rejected the report, withdrew from the League, and continued its aggressive expansion, highlighting the League’s impotence and the growing nationalist tensions in the 1930s.

Why did Japan leave the League of Nations in 1933?

Japan left the League of Nations after being condemned for its invasion of Manchuria in the Lytton Report. Japan felt it had been treated unfairly and rejected the League’s findings, demonstrating the failure of the League to maintain peace and its inability to enforce collective security.

What were the economic impacts of the Great Depression on Japan?

The Great Depression negatively impacted Japan's economy due to decreased trade, tariffs, and falling exports. This led Japan to seek economic self-sufficiency, particularly through the acquisition of resources like food and metals in Manchuria.

What was Japan's response to the London Naval Conference (1930)?

Japan resented the limitations placed on its navy by the London Naval Conference (1930), feeling inferior to the naval powers of the US and Britain. This sentiment fueled nationalistic and militaristic policies, contributing to Japan's aggressive foreign policies, including the invasion of Manchuria.

What was the significance of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)?

The Second Sino-Japanese War marked a major escalation in Japanese aggression in Asia, with Japan's invasion of mainland China. This conflict merged into the larger Pacific Theater of World War II and played a key role in the eventual downfall of Japan after the US dropped atomic bombs in 1945.

Who was Wang Jingwei and what role did he play during the Second Sino-Japanese War?

Wang Jingwei was a Chinese politician who collaborated with Japan and became the leader of the puppet government in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War. He was unpopular with the Chinese populace, and attempts were made to assassinate him.

What was the significance of the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)?

The Kellogg-Briand Pact was an international agreement that outlawed war as a means of resolving disputes. Despite its noble intent, the pact failed to prevent military aggression, as it lacked enforcement mechanisms and was undermined by rising nationalism in various countries, including Japan.

How did Mussolini consolidate power in Italy?

Mussolini consolidated power by:

1. March on Rome (1922) with his Black Shirts, pressuring the king to appoint him as prime minister.
2. Legalized Fascism through the 1925 fascist laws, establishing a totalitarian state where opposition was banned, political parties were dissolved, and Mussolini gained supreme executive authority.
3. He controlled the media, education, and developed secret police to suppress dissent.

What was the role of the Black Shirts in Mussolini’s rise to power?

The Black Shirts were Mussolini's paramilitary force, used to intimidate political opponents and support fascist policies. They played a critical role in the March on Rome (1922), which led to Mussolini's appointment as prime minister.