HISTORY 3083 - Black Power, Final Exam

Black Power as evolution, not rupture

This perspective understood Black Power as a natural and necessary development of the Civil Rights Movement, addressing the limitations of earlier strategies and broadening goals to include economic and political empowerment.

Tactical nonviolence

This referred to using nonviolent methods (e.g., protests, sit-ins) as strategic tools to achieve specific goals like desegregation, without implying a complete rejection of self-defense.

Philosophical nonviolence

This signified a deep-seated commitment to nonviolence as a moral principle and a way of life, often associated with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

Return to Black-led institutions

This emphasized the need for Black communities to create and control their own institutions (e.g., schools, businesses) as a means of self-determination and empowerment.

Protest to politics shift

This indicated a growing recognition that true change required gaining political power, transitioning from protests to engaging in electoral politics and community organizing.

Participatory democracy

This emphasized grassroots involvement and decision-making within Black communities, empowering ordinary Black people to shape decisions affecting their lives.

Urban uprisings as political acts

This interpretation viewed the urban rebellions of the 1960s as expressions of deep-seated political grievances, responding to systemic racism and economic inequality.

Coalition politics

This involved forming alliances with other groups, including some white groups, to achieve shared political goals.

Black autonomy

This prioritized self-reliance, independence, and Black control over Black communities, wary of coalitions that could dilute the Black agenda.

State repression and surveillance

This refers to government actions, particularly by the FBI (COINTELPRO), targeting Black Power organizations through surveillance and disruption tactics.

Internal organizational conflict

This refers to disagreements and power struggles within Black Power groups, despite a shared goal of Black liberation.

Political education as an organizing tool

This involved using education about Black history, systemic racism, and political power to raise consciousness, empower Black people, and mobilize them for collective action.

Cultural production as resistance

This refers to the use of art, music, literature, and other forms of cultural expression to challenge white cultural dominance, celebrate Black identity and heritage, and promote resistance against oppression.

Community control as a political strategy

This is the demand for Black communities to have control over the institutions that directly affect their lives, such as schools, police departments, and local political structures.

Black Nationalism

This ideology emphasizes Black self-determination, racial pride, and the creation of separate Black institutions.

Pan-Africanism

This is a global movement that emphasizes the unity and solidarity of all people of African descent.

Armed self-defense

This concept argues that Black people have the right to defend themselves against racial violence and oppression.

Economic self-determination

This principle stresses the importance of Black economic empowerment through the ownership and control of businesses and resources within Black communities.

Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam

Malcolm X was a prominent figure who advocated for Black empowerment, racial pride, and separation from white society.

Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU)

Founded by Malcolm X, this organization aimed to unite African Americans and connect them with Africans globally to fight for human rights and self-determination.

Muslim Mosque Incorporated

This was a religious organization founded by Malcolm X after he left the Nation of Islam.

Marcus Garvey and UNIA

Marcus Garvey was a Black nationalist leader who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).

W.E.B. Du Bois

A scholar and activist, Du Bois was an influential figure in the development of Pan-Africanism and Black liberation thought.

Robert F. Williams and Radio Free Dixie

Robert F. Williams was a civil rights activist who advocated for armed self-defense.

Liberation theology

This theological perspective interprets Christianity through the lens of the struggle for social justice and liberation from oppression.

Racial pride and self-definition

This emphasis encouraged Black people to take pride in their heritage and to define themselves on their own terms, rather than accepting definitions imposed by white society.

SNCC's ideological shift

This refers to the change in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) from its initial emphasis on nonviolent direct action and interracial cooperation to a more Black Power-oriented ideology focused on Black self-determination and autonomy.

Influence of Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP)

The MFDP challenged the all-white Mississippi Democratic Party at the 1964 Democratic National Convention, highlighting the disenfranchisement of Black voters in the South and demonstrating the need for independent Black political organizing.

Influence of Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO)

The LCFO, also known as the Black Panther Party (before the more famous group), was a political organization in Alabama that used the black panther as its symbol and advocated for Black political power. It demonstrated the effectiveness of independent Black political organizing at the local level.

Stokely Carmichael

A prominent activist and SNCC leader who popularized the term 'Black Power' and advocated for Black self-determination, challenging the mainstream Civil Rights Movement's emphasis on integration and nonviolence.

Expulsion of white members from SNCC

This controversial decision reflected the growing emphasis on Black autonomy within SNCC and the belief that Black organizations should be led and controlled by Black people.

Independent Black political parties

This refers to the formation of political parties created by and for Black people to represent their interests and challenge the existing political system, which was seen as unresponsive to their needs.

Freedom politics vs. traditional politics

Freedom politics emphasized grassroots organizing, community empowerment, and challenging systemic oppression, while traditional politics referred to mainstream electoral politics, which some Black Power activists viewed as inadequate for addressing the fundamental problems faced by Black communities.

Grassroots voter registration

This involved efforts to mobilize Black voters at the local level, empowering communities to participate in the political process and elect their own representatives.

Resonance of the Black Panther ballot symbol with African Americans

The black panther symbol, used by the LCFO and later the Black Panther Party, became a powerful symbol of Black pride, strength, and resistance against oppression, resonating deeply with many African Americans.

John Hulett

A civil rights activist and leader of the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO) in Alabama, who played a key role in organizing Black voters and advocating for Black political power.

Rejection of moral suasion

This refers to the Black Power movement's skepticism towards the idea that appealing to the conscience of white people would be sufficient to achieve racial justice. It emphasized the need for Black people to assert their own power.

Coalition building

Stokely Carmichael and other Black Power activists advocated for coalition building on Black terms, emphasizing that Black people should maintain their autonomy and not compromise their goals to appease potential allies. They were wary of coalitions that diluted Black power.

Electoral mobilization campaigns

These were organized efforts to get Black people to vote, aimed at increasing Black political representation and influence.

Huey P. Newton

Co-founder of the Black Panther Party (BPP). He was a key theorist who articulated the party's philosophy of revolutionary self-defense and community empowerment.

Bobby Seale

Co-founder and chairman of the BPP, known for his oratory and ability to connect with the Black community.

Ten-Point Program

The BPP's foundational platform outlining demands for Black liberation, including full employment, decent housing, exemption from military service, an end to police brutality, free healthcare, free education, and self-determination for Black communities.

Armed self-defense patrols

The BPP's practice of openly carrying weapons to monitor and confront police activity in Black neighborhoods, based on their interpretation of the Second Amendment.

Community survival programs

Social programs designed by the BPP to meet the immediate needs of the Black community, including free breakfast programs, free health clinics, transportation for families visiting prisoners, and educational initiatives.

"Serve the people"

A BPP slogan that encapsulated their philosophy of community service and accountability to the Black community.

Oakland Community School

An educational institution established by the BPP to provide quality, culturally relevant education to Black children, emphasizing Black history and self-determination.

Black Panther newspaper

The BPP's official publication, serving as a tool for disseminating ideology, providing news from a Black perspective, mobilizing support, and countering mainstream media portrayals.

Eldridge Cleaver

A prominent BPP leader and writer known for his book "Soul on Ice," which critiqued racial inequality and white supremacy.

"Revolutionary intercommunalism"

A BPP ideology emphasizing global solidarity and the need for international alliances against capitalism and imperialism.

J. Edgar Hoover

The longtime director of the FBI who viewed the BPP as a major threat to national security and directed COINTELPRO against the party.

COINTELPRO

The FBI's Counterintelligence Program, a covert operation that aimed to infiltrate, surveil, disrupt, discredit, and neutralize the BPP and other Black activist organizations.

Fred Hampton

A charismatic BPP leader in Chicago known for his organizing skills, assassinated by police in a raid orchestrated by the FBI.

Political prisoners

BPP members and other activists imprisoned for their political activities.

Free Huey! campaign

A mass movement to secure the release of Huey P. Newton from prison after he was convicted of manslaughter, highlighting the unfair treatment of Newton and the BPP by the criminal justice system.

Newton's suicide by cop

The highly controversial circumstances surrounding Huey P. Newton's death in 1989, where some believe he was killed by police in an intentional confrontation, reflecting ongoing violence and persecution faced by Black activists.

Black Arts Movement (BAM)

The artistic and literary arm of the Black Power movement, emphasizing the creation of art by and for Black people, reflecting Black culture, history, and experiences.

Larry Neal

A key theorist and writer of the Black Arts Movement who articulated the movement's goals and principles, emphasizing the importance of a Black aesthetic and the role of art in the Black liberation struggle.

The Black Aesthetic

Distinct artistic principles and values celebrated by the Black Arts Movement, prioritizing Black cultural expression and challenging Western artistic standards.

Rejection of the Western aesthetic

The Black Arts Movement actively rejected the idea that European or white artistic standards were universal or superior, seeking to create and celebrate art authentic to the Black experience.

The duty to document

A concept within the Black Arts Movement emphasizing the responsibility of Black artists to record and preserve Black history, culture, and struggles.

Black-owned/operated institutions

The Black Arts Movement stressed the importance of Black control over the production and dissemination of Black art, leading to the creation of Black-owned theaters, publishing houses, galleries, and other cultural spaces.

Art as functional

In the Black Arts Movement, art was seen as having a practical purpose, meant to inspire, educate, mobilize, and heal Black communities.

Revolutionary art

Art that explicitly challenged racial oppression, white supremacy, and the status quo, aiming to raise consciousness, inspire resistance, and promote social change.

Popular art

The Black Arts Movement sought to create art that was accessible and relevant to ordinary Black people, including music, theater, and visual arts that resonated with the everyday experiences of Black communities.

Black cultural nationalism

An ideology closely aligned with the Black Arts Movement, emphasizing the importance of Black culture as a source of pride, unity, and resistance.

Frances Beale - Double Jeopardy

Frances Beale was a Black feminist activist who wrote the influential essay 'Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female,' articulating the unique challenges faced by Black women who experienced both racism and sexism.

Angela Davis

A prominent activist, scholar, and author who became a symbol of Black radicalism and women's liberation, involved in the Civil Rights Movement, the Black Panther Party, and the Communist Party.

Soledad Brothers

Refers to three Black inmates (George Jackson, Fleeta Drumgo, and John Clutchette) charged with the murder of a prison guard at Soledad State Prison.

Cause célèbre

A case that attracts widespread public attention and controversy, often seen as a symbol of injustice.

Women in BPP

Black women played crucial roles in the Black Panther Party, serving in various capacities such as organizers, community workers, writers, and leaders, while facing sexism and gendered expectations.

Gendered expectations in movement spaces

Traditional and often unequal roles assigned to men and women within Black Power organizations and the broader movement, limiting women's participation and influence.

Surveillance and criminalization of women

Black women activists targeted by state surveillance and repression, including FBI monitoring and criminal charges, highlighting the intersectional nature of oppression.

Watts Uprising (1965)

A large-scale urban rebellion in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, sparked by police brutality, symbolizing frustration over racial inequality and police violence.

Newark Uprising (1967)

An uprising in Newark, New Jersey, fueled by racial tensions, poverty, and police misconduct, occurring in the context of many uprisings in 1967.

Detroit Uprising (1967)

One of the deadliest and most destructive uprisings in 1967, highlighting deep-seated problems of racial discrimination and urban decay.

Attica Prison Uprising (1971)

A rebellion by inmates at Attica Correctional Facility in New York, reflecting themes of systemic injustice and oppression within the prison system.

Riots vs. rebellions

A distinction that reframes urban unrest as political 'rebellions' against systemic injustice, emphasizing underlying social and political causes.

Symbols of oppression as targets

During uprisings, targets included businesses, police stations, and symbols of white authority, reflecting anger towards systemic inequality.

Role of police violence in precipitating uprisings

Police brutality and misconduct often served as immediate triggers for urban rebellions, revealing strained relationships between Black communities and law enforcement.

Kerner Commission Report and Recommendations (1968)

A report investigating the causes of urban uprisings, concluding that 'white racism' was the primary cause and offering recommendations for addressing racial inequality.

"Two societies, separate and unequal" meaning

A key finding of the Kerner Commission Report, describing the deep racial divide in American society with vastly different realities for Black and white communities.

White flight

The movement of white residents from racially mixed urban areas to the suburbs, contributing to urban decline and concentration of poverty in Black communities.

Public housing failures - Pruitt-Igoe

The Pruitt-Igoe housing project in St. Louis became a symbol of public housing policy failures, with its demolition illustrating urban planning problems.

Urban disinvestment

The withdrawal of investment and resources from urban areas, leading to economic decline, poverty, and social problems, disproportionately affecting Black communities.

FBI's COINTELPRO

The FBI's Counterintelligence Program also targeted activists within urban areas, seeking to suppress dissent and maintain social control.

J. Edgar Hoover

As director of the FBI, Hoover played a key role in directing COINTELPRO operations against Black activists and organizations, including those involved in urban movements.

Targeting of Black leaders

COINTELPRO specifically aimed to neutralize Black leaders and disrupt their ability to organize and mobilize communities.

Infiltration and informants

The FBI used informants to infiltrate Black activist groups, gather intelligence, and sow discord.

Harassment and false accusations

COINTELPRO tactics included the harassment of activists and the spreading of false accusations to discredit them.

Disruption of coalition efforts

The FBI actively worked to prevent alliances between Black activist groups and other organizations, weakening their collective power.

Letters sowing internal distrust

COINTELPRO agents sent anonymous letters designed to create suspicion and division within Black activist groups.

Deaths of Panthers

COINTELPRO operations contributed to the deaths of several Black Panther Party members, either through direct violence or by creating conditions that led to their deaths.

Legal repression and financial drain

The legal system was used to suppress Black activists through arrests, prosecutions, and lengthy prison sentences. This also created a financial burden on activists and their organizations.

National Guard and police violence

During the urban uprisings, the National Guard and police often used excessive force, leading to further violence and casualties in Black communities.

From Protest to Politics

This essay, written by a prominent Civil Rights activist, argued that while protest was essential, the movement needed to shift its focus to electoral politics to achieve lasting structural change.

Message to the Grassroots

In this powerful speech, Malcolm X urged Black people to unify across class and religious lines to take control of their own communities and destinies.

What We Want

Co-written with Charles V. Hamilton, this essay clearly articulated the core tenets of the Black Power movement.

Negroes with Guns

This book was a significant contribution to the debate on self-defense within the Civil Rights Movement.

Black Panther Party Ten-Point Program

This document served as the BPP's platform, outlining their demands for social, economic, and political justice.

Ten-Point Program

A program by the Black Panther Party that called for full employment, decent housing, free healthcare, and an end to police brutality, focusing on the systemic roots of poverty and inequality in Black communities.