MMW 14 Final

The Enlightenment

Definition
The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement centered primarily in Europe that emphasized reason, scientific inquiry, natural rights, and critiques of absolute monarchy and church authority. Emerging in various European cities, Enlightenment thinkers promoted ideals of progress, rationality, religious tolerance, and social reform.

Significance

It’s important because these ideas directly fueled political revolutions—most notably the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions—as well as economic, social, and cultural movements. Thinkers like Locke, Voltaire, and Rousseau reshaped how people understood sovereignty, liberty, and citizenship.

Connections

The Enlightenment connects to broader 18th–19th century transformations because it provided the ideological foundation for both democratic revolution and the rise of liberal capitalism, steered understandings of race and promoted a fundamental belief attached to colonialism, and laid the foundation for the Crisis of Meaning movement, which ushered in the Age of Emotion with WWI.

Immanuel Kant

Definition

German philosopher in the 18th century. Notable for being an early enlightenment thinker. 

Significance

Wrote What is Enlightenment. Enlightenment creates dichotomy of unenlightened children and enlightened parental figures. Very much elitist, only a select few are able to become enlightened. At the same time, everyone should be able to question the status quo, but should not ignore civic responsibility. Example of soldier following orders should be a given. But the soldier should be free to philosophize about what’s wrong during his free time. 

Connections

Serves as a basis for the enlightenment being a tool of oppression. Laid the groundwork for the creation of ideas of the White Man’s Burden, Scientific Racism (sorta)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Definition

Swiss philosopher during the 18th century. Known for the idea of the social contract and some fairly conservative views on women.

Significance

Views on women saw them as weak and passive, with her life’s work focused on pleasing men. Women’s education should be “planned in relation to man”. All of this coming from his essay, Emile. 

Connections

Connects to much of enlightenment thinking on the role of women and gender roles and norms. His work on social contract influences much of enlightenment thinking and also many of the later revolutions that fight back against imperialism. Especially the American revolution. Influences Common Sense.

Raja Rammohun Roy

Definition

18th century Indian reformer, philosopher, and writer. Father of the Indian Renaissance.

Significance

Significant reforms on polygamy, child marriage, caste system, and sati which is the immolation of a wife upon the death of the husband. Wanted these reforms as a push for constitutional representation within Britain. However, complicated legacy. Ascribed to British/Enlightened Line. Carved out a more acceptable Indian/Hindu culture in the colonial context.

Connections

Can be seen as an early type of Endemic Reform. Brought about reforms in “uncivilized nation” in order to fight for better rights and greater liberties. Can be seen in his letter to Lord Amherst where he argues for a more English style of education, instead of funding traditional Sanskrit schools.

Thomas Paine

Definition

18th century philosopher, and founding father. 

Significance

Best known for writing Common Sense. At this point just start talking about common sense lmao

Connections

Same as common sense

Common Sense

Definiton

Thomas Paine pamphlet from 1776. Advocating for independence from great britain.

Signficance 

Seen as highly persuasive during era and helped to convince the populace towards revolution. Called on people to fight for an egalitarian government.

Connections

Helped to incite revolution within the United States. But what type of actual revolution. Mostly just a revolution for the elite. The egalitarian revolution espoused within common sense, not necessarily true for all. Mentions natural rights and feeds heavily on enlightenment thinking. With all of the same blindspots. Includes extensive disccusion on social contract so also connects with Rousseau. 

Olympe de Gouges

Definition

18th century feminisit. French. Eventually executed during the French Revolution

Signficance

Wrote the rights of women which decried the exclusion of women within the french revolution. Called for revamping of gender norms, and marriage. Communal property between partners. Equal inheritance, Better rights for illegitamate children. Challenged laws that punished women for infidenlity while ignoring men.

Connections

Tie to many of the enlightenment thinkers. But also how the enlightenment was not for everyone. Definitely had some haves and have nots

Haitian Declaration of Independence

Definition

18th century historical document that declared hati’s independence from the French. 

Significance

Renounced France. Argued for the removal of everything French. Invokes blood spilled yadayadayada. Important because first of its kind. Abolished slavery!

Connection

Toussaint L’Ouveture I mean he frickin won the thing. Enabled Haiti to actually enact the enlightenment. Not just for the elites but for everyone. Helped to erase all racial hierarchy.

Toussaint L’Ouverture

Defintion

18th century revolutionary leader and general. A freed black slave. Lead the Hatian Revolution as a general. Read Diderot and other enlightenment authors. Resotred the planatation system, but this time paying workers. He also negotiated trade agreements with the United States and United Kingdom.

Signficance

L’Ouverture is important because of who he is. He is a former slave, that led a succesful rebellion and after winning military victory helped to rebuild the country economically and politically. He also helped to actually implement enlightenment ideals.

Connections

Hatian Declaration of Independence as helped that to actually come to fruition. Championed Enlightenment. ideals such as liberty and equality. Mirrors ideas in Rousseau about consent to be ruled.

Plan of Iguala

Definiton

19th Century document declaring Mexico’s independence from Spain. Issued by Agustin de Iturbide. Three main guarantees. Catholicism as sole religion. Independence from Spain. Equality between Europeans and Creoles. Wanted to create a constitutional monarchy. Established army and protections for government officals, property, and clergy.

Signficance

Framed as Spain being a father who needs to let his kids who are grown go. Emphasized unity among all. Europeans, Americans, Africans, and Asians. Pretty unheard of stuff at the time.

Connections

Ideas of nonage. Escaping nonage through enlightenment. Also paternalistic view of Europe in a way very similar to Imperialism and perhaps the White man’s burden.

Adam Smith

Definition

18th century philosopher and economist. Wrote Wealth of Nations which explores the free market, self interest, and competion. Introduced the invisible hand which describes how self-interested actions can benefit society through regulation of the markets. Reading mentions the division of labor as a key component.

Signficance

Ground breaking work at the time. Is the father of modern econmics. Believed that economic activity should be guided by moral principles and can be compatible. Divison of labor leads to rapid industrialization and urbanization.

Connections

Urbanization, which is a big deal as it increases wealth disparity. Direct tie to Engels “The Conditions of the Working Class”. Industrialization increases class hierarchies and racial hierarchies.

Andrew Ure

Definition

19th Century Scientist and professor. Wrote the philosophy of manufactures. ARgued that factory system as beneficial to society. Mechanization as philanthropic rather than exploitative. Argued that machinery allowed women and children and ordinary laborers to work instead of skilled men.

Signficance

It’s a different viewpoint, one in which these industrialization efforts were seen as not exploitative but beneficial. But this contrasts to what many in the modern day think. Arguably, mechanization was a net positive. But perhaps not quite as rosy as Ure had imagined.

Connections

Tie to Adam Smith and his views. Further emphasis can be placed on urbanization. Mechanization aided in urbanization, but people were still very much being exploited.

Friedrich Engels

Defintion

19th century german philosopher and political theorist. Socialist and friend of Karl Marx. Wrote the conditon of the working class describing conditions in Manchester. Talks about how the city chose to screen the poor from the wealthy. Mills are psoitiioned along rivers and canals and middle class and working class very much divided.

Signficance

In a way a strong rebuttal to Ure’s rosy view of mechanization. Increased pollution, increased wealth disparity and inequality. Important because it provides a different view.

Connection

Ure obvi, urbanization, enlightenment I guess. Can talk about industrialization being an embodiment of the enlightenment. Importantly improvment for some, but regression for most.

Urbanization

Defintion

Phenomena where people moved into cities chasing factory work in the 19th century.

Significance

Aided in the industrial revolution. At the same time brought back previously dormant disesaes and caused many of the social stigmas and racial hierarchy that we see to this very day.

Connections

Engels, Ure, and Smith. Can also talk about enlightement

Herbert Spencer

Definition

19th Century English “Scientist” originated survival of the fittest. Took Darwi'n’s theories and applied it to sociology and ethics. In many ways created scientific racism. Wrote “Progress: Its Laws and Causes” Ties evolution into progress and creates social hierarchy from it. Human racial differentiation part of natural progress. Essentialy stated that European industrial societies represent pinnacle of human evolution. Uses that as proof of evolutionary superiority.

Signficance

This asshole kind of starts this whole pseudo science about race and how ties into everything. Helps to perpetuate these beliefs which were actually really popular. Also in many ways helps to justify imperialism.

Connections

Enlightenment, scientific racism

The Coolie Trade

Definiton

Sytem of indentured servitude that took laborers primarly from China and India and brought them to the Americas and Carribean. Appeared after the aboliton of slavery and involved contracts. However, instead it was highly exploitative and in many ways mirroed slavery.

Signficance

Once again shows European belief in racial superiority. At the same time also shows exploitation. Double standard seen in Europe. Slavery = bad. Exploitation akin to slavery = ok.

Connections

Scientifc racism, they justified it as the Chinese being inferior. Enlightenment cons of benefits for few and not for the majority.

Scientific Racism

Definition

17th century idea born out of the enlightenment. Consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be both scientific and factual but are incompatible with the scientific method. Characterized by contradictory, exaggerated, or unfalsifiable claims.

Significance

Came out of many enlightenment ideals. Used science and advancement in the enlightenment. Used these ideas to justify racial hierarchy.

Connections

Enlightenment, Imperialism and all that stuff. Kind of a bastardization of the enlightenment. Used it to justify racial hierarchy.

Commissioner Lin Zexu

Definition

18th and 19th century Chinese courtier

Significance

Wrote moral advice reading to Queen Victoria. Called out the hypocrisy in the opium trade. Used enlightenment ideas to call out Queen Victoria. Invokes moral laws and natural rights to push back against Queen.

Connections

Imperialism, Race, Enlightenment

British East India Company

Definition

Started in the 17th century. It was initially just a buisness, but it became a political and military force that extended the influence of the british empire and became a perpetrator of colonialism.

Significance

Colonialism and imperialism. Became a new way for British to establish power. Officers were often racist and used scientific racism.

Connections

Imperialism, Colonialism, Racism, Enlightenment

John O’Sullivan

Definition

19th Century American Journalist who coined the term manifest destiny.

Significance

Coined the term manifest destiny and was one of the biggest proponents of American Exceptionalism.

Connections

New imperialism, argues that American imperialism is different from that of Europe, even though it is functionally the same. Race, he dismisses the native americans as savages and ignores them in his vision for a new america.

Opium Wars

Definition

Two wars fought during the 19th century between China and britain in the first. and china, france and britain in the second.

Significance

Forced china to not only pay reparations but also forced china to legalize opium which made the british immensely wealthy.

Connections

Racism, New Imperialism

Endemic Reform

Definition

Systematic changes made by countries during the 19th century. Specifically to become more western and more modern.

Significance

Became a response to colonialism, essentially. Don’t colonize us, we are already like you. Signficant reform can be seen in Hawaii with that hawaiian queen. Also Japan with the Meiji restoration

Connections

Enlightenment, new imperialism, racism

Opening of Japan

Definition

19th century. Essentially the US sent a warship under Matthew Perry and forced Japan to open some ports under threat of military action.

Significance

Forced Japan to open to the west, for better or for worse. Japan as a result caused the Meiji restoration and if you really think about it, WWII

Connections

Endemic Reform, Racism, New Imperialism

Meiji Restoration

Definition

19th Century reform undertaken in Japan to modernize and westernize while maintaing absolute power in the Japanese sovereignty.

Significance

Prime example of Endemic Reform. Centralized power to the emepror. Helped Japan to rapidly industrialize and catalyze conquest from Japan.

Connections

Endemic Reform.

Self-Strengthening Movement

Definition

19th Century effort from china to modernize its military, industry, and education by adopting western technology

Significance

Example of endemic reform. It was also a response to the opium wars. The opium wars showed China they needed to modernize.

Connections

Endemic Reform. New Imperialism, opium wars.

Queen Lili’uokalani

Definition

19th Century queen of hawaii.

Significance

Helped Hawaii to reform by adopting western political, cultural, and miliitary practices. Signficantly also was prone to some of the racism seen in the enlightenment. In many was a postiive and negative embodiment of the enlightenment.

Connections

Endemic reform, new imperialism, race and hierarchy

The Victorian Era

Definition

19th Century era where Queen Victoria was monarch.

Significance

Had many ideals and ideas around gender and also the industrial revolution. True womanhood which meant being. a homemaker. Women were seen as the keepers of moral and virtue. Sport also played a role in being seen as superior.

Connections

Normalized enlightenment pros and cons. Especially in the non-west contagious disease act

Queen Isabel II of Spain

Definition

19th Century Spanish Queen.

Significance

In many ways paralleled the life of Queen Victoria, but the image of them in public was quite opposite. Both started ruling at a young age. However, Queen Victoria was unhappy in her marriage and had affairs. Which was very unpopular with the middle class which saw women especially Queens as paragons of virtue.

Connections

Victorian era, gender, Queen Victoria, Enlightenment

Queen Victoria

Definition

19th Century British Queen

Significance

Paralleled Queen Isabel II. But, was more seen as what a woman should be. Was a devoted mother, and dearly loved her husband. Was sort of the example that the people expected her to be and as such was immensely popular.

Connections

Victorian era, gender queen isabel

Middle-Class Domestic Ideology

Definition

19th Century value system that defined distinct and strict gender roles for white men and women.

Significance

Designated the home as a private sphere for women and the politics and work as a public space for men.

Connections

New Imperialism

Definition

19th and 20th century, time in which a period of colonial expansion occured.

Significance

Imperialism used to be more about mercantilism. In new imperialism it became much more about racial hierarchy and scientific racism. Technological advantage became a big part. Era of protectorates and other things.

Connections

Enlightenment, endemic reform

E.D. Morel

Definition

Significance

Connections

Rudyard Kipling

Definition

18th and 19th century British journalist and author. Wrote the Jungle Book and the White Man’s Burden

Significance

Was an imperialist author and poet. Notably, wrote the Jungle Book and the White Man’s Burden. Compared Africans to monkeys and used a great deal of scientifc racism. In writing the Jungle Book he essentially introudced his bigotry and racism to a new generation. The White Man’s burden also encouraged America to colonize the Phillipines for their own good.

Connections

New imperialism, scientific racism

The Jungle Book

Definition

19th century book written by Rudyard Kipling

Significance

Notably, wrote the Jungle Book and the White Man’s Burden. Compared Africans to monkeys and used a great deal of scientific racism. Saw Europeans as the civilized ones who educated Mowgli and made him civilized.

Connections

New imperialism, scientific racism, racial hierarchy

White Man’s Burden

Definition

19th Century poem by Rudyard Kipling that encouraged the United States to colonize the Philippines through force.

Significance

This was not only an influential poem, but also a new justification for new imperialism. They could now take the “moral” high ground by claiming that they were doing it for the benefit of those that were being colonized.

Connections

New imperialism, racial hierarchy

Nationalism

Definition

An ideology of placing one’s “nation” above all else that became increasingly popular in the late 19th and early 20th century. Comes from “nation building” and is often from a place of conformity and oppression of those who do not fit the national identity.

Significance

This leads to the rise of ultra nationalism and fascism that eventually leads the world to war.

Connections

Enlightenment, racial hierarchy, imperialism all of the above

Herder

Definition

18th Century Prussian philosopher.

Significance

Argued that nation building was not political but rather natural. That national identity was inevitable and rooted in nature. Argued that language was one of the most powerful nationalist arguments. To preserve your language is to preserve your identity. Believed that imperialism was a monstrosity. The most natural state was for one people to have their own national character.

Connections

Sort of anti-enlightenment, believed in tradition and organic development rather than universalism. Imperialism, endemic reform.

Ernest Renan

Definition

19th Century Philosopher

Significance

Argues that there are no pure races in Europe so race based politics are dangerous. Language is not a good indicator either as US and England both speak English but aren’t united whreas Switzerland has multiple languages but is united. Religion doesn’t work either as there are different faiths within the same nation. Geography is just arbitrary. A nation is the past and present of people. A collection of collective memories.

Connections

Just connect to other philosophers.

The Meiji Constitution

Definition

19th Century Japanese Legal Document that turned Japan into a constitutional monarchy. It created a bicameral legislature and granted significant power to the emperor, including military.

Significance

More signficantly it represents a time of reform for Japan. It brought about a period of modernizing of not just policy, but industry, and military. Overall it brought about a westernizing of Japan. But also brought about the adoption of both good and bad western ideals including scientific racism.

Connections
Endemic reform, new imperialism, enlightenment, racial hierarchy, nationalism.

Simón Bolívar

Definition

18th century mitiary officer and statesman

Significance

Argued for nationalism more as a method of resitance to imperialism and colonization. Geography helped to determine the possibiliuty of what could be a nation. In terms of governance found that the federal system to be over-perfect and thought the british style of mixed monarchy just wouldn’t work. Unity comes from necessity and not out of identiity. National foundation based on historical grievances.

Connections

Just relate to others.