AP PSYCH: Unit 2

Unit 2 test review

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make it meaningful.

Bottom-up Processing

Analysis that starts at the sensory level and works up to higher levels of processing.

Top-down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Perceptual Set

A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.

Gestalt Psychology

An approach to psychology that emphasizes that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.

Closure

The perceptual tendency to fill in gaps in order to perceive a complete image.

Proximity

Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived as belonging together.

Similarity

Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging together.

Figure and Ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Attention

Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events.

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out other stimuli.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.

Retinal Disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from both eyes—the greater the disparity, the closer the object.

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth based on how much the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

Relative Size

If two objects are known to be similar in size, the one casting a smaller retinal image is perceived as farther away.

Texture Gradient

Textured surfaces appear smaller and finer as distance increases.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance

Interposition

If one object partially blocks another, we perceive it as closer.

Perceptual Constancies

Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating event likelihood based on memory availability

Mental Set

A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way that has worked before.

Priming

The unconscious activation of certain associations, predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

Framing

The way an issue is posed, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The false belief that future probabilities are influenced by past events.

Sunk-cost Fallacy

Basing current decisions on previously invested resources.

Executive Functions

Higher-order thinking processes including planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Expanding the number of possible solutions

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down possible solutions to find the best one.

Functional Fixedness

Thinking of things only in terms of their usual functions, hindering problem solving.

Testing Effect

Improved memory from being tested on material rather than simply rereading it.

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking—planning, monitoring, and assessing one’s understanding and performance.

Intelligence

Mental quality involving learning from experience, solving problems, and adapting to new situations.

Apparent Movement

The perception that a stationary object is moving.

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adapting existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

A logical, methodical procedure guaranteeing a solution.

Heuristics

A simple, efficient thinking strategy that speeds judgment but increases error risk.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype, sometimes ignoring relevant information.

Construct Validity

The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Predictive Validity

How well a test predicts the behavior it intends to predict.

Reliability

The consistency of test results across administrations.

Test-Retest Reliability

Reliability determined by comparing scores on the same test over time.

Split-Half Reliability

Reliability measured by comparing performance on two halves of the same test.

Stereotype Threat

A self-confirming concern of being judged based on a negative stereotype.

Stereotype Lift

Improved performance due to awareness of positive expectations.

Flynn Effect

The observed rise in average IQ scores across generations.

Achievement Tests

Assess what a person has learned.

Aptitude Tests

Predict a person’s future performance or capacity to learn.

Fixed Mindset

Belief that abilities are fixed and unchangeable.

Growth Mindset

Belief that abilities can be developed through effort.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled.

Episodic Memory

Memory of specific personal experiences.

Semantic Memory

Memory for factual knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or conditioned associations without conscious awareness.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory involving motor skills and habits.

g (General Intelligence)

A factor that underlies all mental abilities, measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner’s theory that intelligence consists of eight distinct types.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A score derived from mental age divided by chronological age × 100.

Mental Age

Age level of mental performance on an intelligence test.

Chronological Age

Actual time elapsed since birth.

Standardization

Defining test procedures and meaningful scores through comparison with a pretested group.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Memory model with sensory, short-term, and long-term stages.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting less than a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds.

Short-Term Memory

Holds limited information temporarily before storage or forgetting.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental and well-learned information.

Effortful Processing

Encoding requiring attention and conscious effort.

Encoding

Processing information into memory.

Storage

Retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

Getting information out of storage.

Levels of Processing Model

Memory retention depends on depth of processing—deeper means better recall.

Shallow Encoding

Processing based on surface features.

Deep Encoding

Processing based on meaning.

Structural Encoding

Shallow processing focusing on physical structure.

Phonemic Encoding

Encoding based on sound.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform an intended action in the future.

Long-term Potentiation

Strengthened neural firing after stimulation—basis of learning and memory.

Working Memory Model

Short-term memory model including active processing of incoming and retrieved information.

Central Executive

Directs attention and processing in working memory.

Phonological Loop

Holds and processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Holds and processes visual and spatial information.

Massed Practice

Cramming information at once

Distributed Practice

Spacing study sessions over time

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first and last items best.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall of items at the end of a list.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to retain it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new information to existing knowledge.

Memory Retention

Ability to store and retrieve information over time.

Autobiographical Memory

Personal recollections of one’s life experiences.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to retrieve past memories.