PSYC140 - Sexual identity & society

Weeks 1-3

Authenticity

In which an individual views themselves acting in a manner that aligns with their inner beliefs, values, feelings, desires, or perceived disposition. Alignment between inner experience and outward self.

Biological terms

Gender assigned based on obvervable traits. eg; AFAB, AMAB, boy/girl, male/female

Psychological terms

Felt sense of being a gender based on cultural understandings. eg; woman, man, nonbinary, genderqueer

Cisgender, transgender

Terms reflecting the relationship between assigned sex and felt/experienced gender

Trans woman (MTF), trans male (FTM)

Transbinary identities

Femininity, masculinity, “compulsory”

Gender roles and ideology

• Feminine, masculine

• Androgynous

• Gender conforming/nonconforming

Gender presentation/expression

“Two-spirit” Non-binary conception of gender among Indigenous North American cultures

Culture-specific forms of gender diversity

Neurogender

One’s gender experience is shaped by neurotype

Intersectionality

How inequality based on ethnicity, sexual orientation, sex, and/or gender occurs at every level of the research process - including measurement, analysis, and interpretation

Intersectionality (2)

How social identity and inequality function interdependently and must be treated as overlapping and connecting.

Duckworth’s wheel of power/privilege

Minority stress theory

A hypothesis - sexual minority health disparities are produced by excess exposure to social stress faced by sexual minority populations, due to their stigmatized social status. Can lead to emotional dysregulation, social/interpersonal problems.

Distal stressors

Originate from people/institutions that impact the LGBTQ+ person. eg; everyday discrimination, losing a job

Proximal stressors

One learns to reject themselves. eg; internalized stigma

Narrative 1

Gender as self-constructed

Narrative 2

Sexuality as plural, playful, and flexible

Narrative 3

Sexuality and monogamy as cultural compulsions

Narrative 4

Intersectionality as central to the experience of gender and sexuality

Narrative 5 

Hostile. The existence of sexual and gender diversity is a denied, and perceived as a threat to the “natural” gender order characterized by patriarchy. 

How can narrative 5 be considered a form of authenticity?

Individuals today have the discursive (eg language) and performative (eg social media) tools that allow them to build personal narratives in which their internal experiences of gender and sexuality align with their outward appearance and presentation. It can be considered a form of authenticity, as those included in narrative 5 perceive themselves to be upholding the “natural” and “true” social order. From their POV, authenticity lies in preserving traditional norms of sexuality and gender.

Sex hierarchy

The “need” to draw and maintain a line between good and bad sex. The line distinguishes between sanctifiable, safe, healthy, mature, legal, or politically correct sex, and dangerous, psychopathological, infantile, or politically reprehensible sex. Sexual order/chaos.

The “charmed” circle

Good, normal, blessed sexuality. eg; Heterosexual, married, monogamous, pro-creative

The “outer limits”

Bad, abnormal, unnatural sexuality. eg; Homosexual, unmarried, promiscuous, casual.

Patriarchy

A social system in which men hold primary power and predominance in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. Male supremacy

1) What genders am I attracted to? 

“I’m attracted to this/these gender(s) performance or presentation.” Includes gay, lesbian, multigender attraction (including trans & nonbinary individuals) and questioning/exploring.

2) How much sexual desire do I have, and in what conditions do I experience desire?

• Asexuality (does not experience sexual attraction)

• Demisexuality (the conditions are emphasized)

3) What traits turn me on?

-

4) What’s my style/tribe?

Subcultural + role-based identities. Includes gay/queer/trans men’s subcultures, sexual roles and positions, kinks, and lesbian/femme spaces and subcultures.

5) Is it about sex or romance?

Covers romantic/sexual attraction. Intersections with gender - biromantic, heteroromantic, etc. 

6) What kinds of relationships am I drawn to?

Relational identity. Includes monogamy, monoamarous, open relationships, and polyamory.

7) Don’t call me that (unless I say it’s okay)

Queer (reclaimed), dyke (reclaimed, ingroup), f*ggot (ingroup), homo (ingroup), tr*nny (controversial - ingroup use).

8) Don’t call me anything

Unlabeled

9) Reflections of nonconsensual sexuality

Pedophilia, bestiality, necrophilia, sexual violence and aggression.

Sexual prejudice

Negative attitudes, emotions, or behaviors directed towards individuals based on their sexual orientation. This may manifest as discrimination, stereotypes, and hostility.

Cognition in sexual prejudice

Negative attitude towards individuals based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Internalization of myths that legitimize sexual and gender hierarchy

Emotion in sexual prejudice

Disgust, fear

Behavior in sexual prejudice

Direct violence: harassment, bullying, victimization, discrimination, rejection, exclusion

Indirect violence: support for hostile social policies

Authoritarian Personality Theory - 1950s

Certain people are predisposed to practice prejudice based on strict upbringing.

Cognitive Categorization Theory - 1950s

Prejudice is a normal cognitive response in the context of segregation of groups. You don’t have to have a certain personality type to practice prejudice.

Realistic Conflict Theory - 1950s - 1960s

Prejudice is a consequence of competition over resources.

Social Identity Theory - 1970s - 1980s 

Prejudice is a consequence of social categorization, no matter how “minimal”

Social Dominance Theory - 1990s

• Societies are structured as group-based hierarchies

• Legitimizing myths maintain hierarchies

• Some individuals have a stronger desire for dominance than others

Hierarchy

Groups exist in vertical relation; some are “better” than others based on differences such as ability, intelligence, “nature”

Pluralism

Groups exist in lateral relation; differences do not speak to relative value, but rather to diverse potentials (diversity)

Myth 1: One sex (male) is better than another (female)

Ideology: patriarchy

Prejudice: sexism

Myth 2: There are only 2 genders (male/female), and they are set at birth

Ideology: cisnormativity

Prejudice: cissexism, transphobia, enbyphobia (NB)

Myth 3: Sex between a man and woman is more “natural” than sex between people of the same sex or gender

Ideology: heteronormativity

Prejudice: Homophobia, heterosexism

Cissexism

Prejudice/discrimination against transgender/nonbinary individuals. Assumes that cisgender identities are superior and more natural.

Heterosexism

Bias or discrimination against individuals that stems from the assumption that heterosexuality is the “normal” sexual orientation

Heteronormativity

The assumption that heterosexuality is the default and preferred form of sexuality.

Myth 4: People are either gay, straight, or “lying”

Ideology: Normative monosexism

Prejudice: Monosexism, biphobia, bierasure

Monosexism

The belief that people can only be attracted to one gender

Myth 5: Monogamy is the “ideal” form of human relationships.

Ideology: Mononormativity

Prejudice: Polyphobia

Myth 6: Sex is to make babies, not for pleasure, playfulness, and creativity

Ideology: Sex negativity, vanilla normativity

Prejudice: Kinkphobia, kink stigma

Myth 7: To be human is to be sexual and romantic

Idealogy: Allonormativity

Prejudice: Allosexism, acephobia/aphobia

Myth 8: Once identified, one’s sexual identity should not change across one’s life course

Ideaology: Fixedness normativity

Prejudice: Stigma towards those who experience fluidity

Myth 9: One’s sexual identity label must match their pattern of sexual attraction and behavior

Idealogy: Alignment normativity

Prejudice: Closeted

What’s the impact of minority stress theory?

Begins with a stigmatized culture. Prejudice, discrimination, and victimization add to minority stress experiences. Contributes to minority stress processes: stigma expectations, concealment/disclosure stress, internalized stigma. Leads to negative mental health outcomes.

How can we reduce MST?

Individual: Change the way we think and talk about gender/sexuality

Interpersonal: Contact with diverse others

Institutional: Education for diversity, curriculum, policy + practice

Cultural: Support and encourage visibility

Societal/structural: Support and advocate for law/policy changes

LGBTQ+ stats 

• Bisexual identification is the most common

• Younger adults (Gen Z) are more likely to identify as LGBTQ+

• Republican support for same-sex marriages has dropped since 2022, while Democrat support has maintained a steady increase

• 2/3s in the US prefer birth sex over gender identity. Republicans are low in the percentage regarding the morality of changing one’s gender (~9%), and Democrats are in the 70s. 

APA resolution on conversion therapy

Sexual orientation change efforts put individuals at a significant risk of harm. Variations in the expression of gender are normal. Support sexual orientation diversity.

T/F: According to Hammack and Manago (2025), social technologies have provided a valuable cultural tool for the growth and support of sexual and gender diversity in the 21st century, even as they also provided a tool for the resurgence of cisheteropatriarchal masculinity.

True

T/F: According to Hammack and Manago (2025), expressions of patriarchal masculinity are different from forms of sexual and gender diversity in that they do not constitute expressions of authenticity.

False

Describe the concept of "intersectionality" and its relationship to sexuality, as discussed in both Russell et al. (2023) and Hammack & Manago (2025).

Intersectionality explains that all systems of oppression are intertwined and influence individuals who hold multiple minority identities (e.g., one's gender, sexuality, race, etc.). 

T/F: According to Hammack and Manago (2025), the growth in use of the term "pansexual" to describe attraction beyond gender can be credited especially to platforms such as Tumblr.

True

T/F: According to Russell et al. (2023), evidence of sexual fluidity discovered this century suggests that sexual orientation is malleable and can be changed through psychotherapy.

False

T/F: According to Etengorff and Lefevor (2021), research suggests that being religious inevitably means someone is likely to practice sexual prejudice.

False

T/F: According to Herek (2015), the best explanation for the dramatic rise in support for sexual diversity is generational replacement (i.e., as members of older generations die, support for sexual diversity increases because younger people are more supportive).

False

T/F: According to Etengoff and Lefevor (2021), conservativism (which entails a preference for stability, conformity, and retaining the status quo) is an adaptive form of social cognition that helps people cope with uncertainty.

True

Why does Herek (2015) suggest that "homophobia" isn't really the best way to describe opposition to sexual diversity? What word or concept does he recommend instead?

The term “homophobia” implies that it is a debilitating fear that people seek to be cured from, which is not the case. The term “sexual prejudice” should be used in its place when applicable.

T/F: According to Herek (2015), social contact with LGBTQ+ people can make people with sexual prejudice even more hostile toward sexual diversity and thus is best avoided.

False

T/F: Herek (2015) argues that sexual prejudice is not an indicator of psychopathology but rather fulfills certain psychological functions for the individual, including affirming their own sense of personal or social identity.

True

T/F: According to Etengoff and Lefevor (2021), the most robust predictor of both sexism and sexual prejudice is not religiosity but rather authoritarianism as a personality trait.

True

T/F: In the Cerezo et al. (2020) study, most of the women narrated that their priority was be out about their sexual orientation and gender expansive identity, regardless of how they thought it might impact their family's social standing.

False

T/F: A key finding of the study by Cerezo et al. (2020) was that sexual and gender minority women of color were not able to integrate their sexual/gender identities and their racial/ethnic identities.

False

T/F: Rubin (1984) argues that, for the most part, sex positivity characterizes cultural attitudes toward sexuality and has allowed sexual diversity to thrive relatively freely in US society.

False

T/F: According to Rubin (1984), hierarchies of sexual value based on religion, psychiatry/psychology, and popular opinion function similarly to ideological systems of racism.

True

T/F: As Frost and Meyer (2023) argue, the minority stress theory continues to be relevant because studies continue to show that young sexual minority people experience as much or more minority stressors as their older peers and suffer related mental health outcomes.

True

T/F; One critique of minority stress theory is it operates from a deficit-based approach without sufficient attention to positive outcomes and resilience among sexual and gender minority populations.

True

In no more than 200 words, explain the concept of "authenticity" in sexuality and gender as described by Hammack and Manago (2025). 

Authenticity is a form of narrative identity in which the individual tells a story of alignment between inner experience and outward self-expression, unconstrained from the limits of social context.

What are the suggested principles & practices to support sexual & gender diversity in Hammack and Manago (2025)?

1. Ground psychological science and practice in lived experience

2. Challenge normative thinking about sexuality and gender

3. Practice affirmation, not suspicion

4. Center the phenomenon of diversity over discrete identity categories

5. Embrace fluid + nonlinear narratives of social change

T/F: The terms asexual, graysexual, allosexual, and demisexual indicate the gender that a person is attracted to.

False

What do bisexual, sapphic, gay, and straight all have in common? 

They are all terms to describe what gender (s) one is attracted to.

Identify the 9 ways of talking about sexual identity as described in lecture. 

1. What gender(s) am I attracted to?

2. How much sexual desire do I have, or in what conditions do I experience desire?

3. What traits turn me on?

4. What’s my style/tribe/subculture/role?

5. Is it about sex or romance?

6. How do I engage in relationships?

7. Don’t call me that

8. Don’t call me anything

9. Nonconsensual sexualities

Stud, pup, and stone top are all examples of what dimension of sexual identity? 

4) What’s my style or tribe? Subcultural & role-based identities.

T/F: Polyamory describes the subculture one belongs to.

False

T/F: “ ‘Biological terms’– assigned based on observable traits” is one way to talk about sexual identity.

False - this is related to the 8 ways of gender.

Identify the ways of talking about gender as described in lecture. 

1. “Biological” terms related to sex

2. Psychological terms related to gender identity

3. Terms reflecting the relationship between sex and gender identity

4. Trans binary terms'

5. Gender roles & ideologies

6. Gender presentation/expression

7. Culture-specific forms of gender diversity

8. In relation to neurodivergence

Explain how terms like “woman” and “femme” differ? 

The term “woman” relates to 2) psychological terms in the eight ways of gender: a felt sense of gender based on cultural understandings. Femme relates to sexual identity and is a term that can describe one’s identity or a specific role within a community.

T/F: Man, woman, non-binary, and genderqueer are all psychological terms to describe one’s gender identity based on cultural understandings.

True

T/F: Two-Spirit describes a culture specific form of sexual identity. 

False, it describes a culture specific form of gender diversity.

T/F: Sexual prejudice can come from members of sexual and gender diverse communities themselves.

True

Describe the Authoritarian Personality Theory. 

Certain people are predisposed to practice prejudice based on strict upbringing (1950s).

Reflect on your own intersectional experiences. 

First-gen college student of color - Navigating higher education, carrying the weight of my family’s sacrifices and representing my community while simultaneously facing the pressure to prove I belong. Microaggressions, systemic barriers. 

What is Social Identity Theory?

Prejudice is a consequence of social categorization, no matter how “minimal.”

Where does sexual and gender prejudice come from? 

• The need to belong to a group (social identity) & to experience a positive sense of self from group membership.

• To respond to the perceived loss of power/status in the social hierarchy by diminishing the outgroup

• Hierarchical thinking about the nature of groups & social organization

• Internalization of myths about sexuality and gender

• Endorsement of these myths justifies enactment of cultural ideologies that support sexual & gender prejudice