Approaches - Psychology paper 2

Outline the assumptions of the behaviourist approach

1. We are born as blank slates - behaviour is learnt from experience

2. Only observable behaviour is scientifically measurable and therefore should be studied - thought processes are subjective and difficult to test

3. Psychologists should use lab experiments as they are the best way to maintain objectivity

4. Valid to study the behaviour of animals

What is classical conditioning

Learning through association. Learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response (which can be negative or positive). If the association of the stimulus is with a positive response, then the positive response will arise whenever the person comes into contact with that specific stimulus - same for negative associations.

Outline Pavlov’s study into classical conditioning

Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate every time they heard a bell ring. The UCS was food and the dog salivating was the UCR. The UCS (food) was constantly paired with a NS (bell ringing) which resulted in an UCR (dog salivating). Overtime, the dogs learnt to associate the sound of the bell with food, so eventually the sound of the bell became a CS and the dog salivating became the CR.

What are the evaluation points for Pavlov’s study into classical conditioning

+ High control

- Issues extrapolating findings to human

- Unethical

+ High control

A strength of Pavlov’s study is that he uses a lab experiment and therefore has high control (eg dogs were harnessed in the lab) and can establish cause and effect. Pavlov manipulated the IV (UCS and NS) and was able to accurately measure the DV (the amount the dog salivated). This is a strength because Pavlov successfully established the cause and effect relation between the stimulus and response.

- Issues extrapolating findings to human

A limitation of Pavlov’s research is that he used animals to study classical conditioning. It could be argued that using dogs to test the effects of classical conditioning cannot be generalised to human behaviour as some psychologists claim that unlike animals, humans have free will and therefore their behaviour is not purely determined by the association made between stimulus and response. This is a limitation of Pavlov’s research because his conclusions about classical conditioning might not provide a valid explanation of all human behaviour as we are unable to extrapolate the findings from animal studies to humans.

- Unethical

A limitation of Pavlov’s research is that it could be considered unethical. Before the experiment, Pavlov performed surgery on the dogs saliva glands so that salivation was easier to measure. During the experiment, the dogs were strapped in harnesses so that they were kept in the same place for many hours at a time. This is a limitation because although the BPS guidelines do not apply to animals, some psychologists argue that animals have rights and shouldn’t be used in such experiments, especially if the findings arent even representative of human behaviour.

What is operant conditioning

Learning through consequences. Reinforcement means something in the environment that strengthens a behaviour and makes it more likely to occur.

What are the types of reinforcement

1. Positive reinforcement

2. Negative reinforcement

3. Punishment

What is positive reinforcement

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed. Behaviour is more likely to reoccur if it is rewarded by a positive consequence.

What is negative reinforcement

Occurs when an individual is rewarded by avoiding something unpleasant. Behaviour is more likely to reoccur if it is rewarded by the avoidance of negative consequences.

What is punishment

An unpleasant consequence of a behaviour. Behaviour is less likely to reoccur if it results in negative consequences.

Outline Skinner’s study into operant conditioning

Skinner studied operant conditioning.

Positive reinforcement was displayed by placing a hungry rat in a ‘Skinner Box’ which contained a lever. The rat would move around the box and accidentally knock the lever, which would immediately result in a food pellet to drop in a container next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.

Negative reinforcement was displayed by placing the rat into the ‘Skinner Box’ where the rat would experience discomfort due to an unpleasant electric current. The rat would move around the box and accidentally knock the lever, which would immediately result in the electric current being switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. Skinner took this one step further and taught the rats to switch off the lever whenever the light was turned on.

Punishment was displayed as once the rat had learnt to press the lever, Skinner trained it to cease this behaviour by electrifying the floor each time the lever was pressed.

What are the evaluation points for Skinner’s study into operant conditioning

+ High control

- Issues extrapolating findings to human

- Unethical

+ High control

A strength of Skinner’s study is that he uses a lab experiment and therefore has high control (eg the Skinner Box) and can establish cause and effect. Skinner manipulated the IV (the consequences of the behaviour) and was able to accurately measure the DV (effect on the rats behaviour). This is a strength because Skinner successfully established the cause and effect relation between the consequences of a behaviour (positive or negative) and the future frequency of its occurrence.

- Issues extrapolating findings to human

A limitation of Skinner’s research is that he used animals to study operant conditioning. It could be argued that use of rats and pigeons to test the effects of operant conditioning cannot be generalised to human behaviour as some psychologists claim that unlike animals, humans have free will and therefore their behaviour is not purely determined by positive and negative reinforcement in the same way. This is a limitation of Skinner’s research because his conclusions about operant conditioning might not provide a valid explanation of all human behaviour as we are unable to extrapolate the findings from animal studies to humans.

- Unethical

A limitation of Skinner’s research is that it could be considered unethical. Skinner kept the animals in small cages and subjected them to a range of different tests, some of which would have caused them pain and anxiety eg the electric shocks. This is a limitation because although the BPS guidelines do not apply to animals, some psychologists argue that animals have rights and shouldn’t be used in such experiments, especially if the findings aren’t even representative of human behaviour.

What are the overall evaluation points of the behaviourist approach

+ Practical application

+ Supported by evidence

+ Scientific method

- Favours the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate

+ Practical application

A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has practical applications as it has produced successful treatments for phobias and patients in institutions. Classical conditioning has led to the development of systematic desensitization which works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) that is associated with a feared object or situation (CS). The therapist tries to replace the maladaptive feared response (anxiety) with a more positive response (relaxation) so that the patient is no longer anxious in the presence of the feared object. Operant conditioning has led to the use of a token economy system within institutions where appropriate behaviour is rewarded with tokens which are exchanged for privileges. This is a strength of the behaviourist approach because it has contributed to the development of these treatments which have found to be effective, which therefore suggests that the approach must have some validity.

+ Supported by evidence

A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is supported by evidence. For example, Skinner demonstrated how positive and negative reinforcement can condition the behaviour of rats. He rewarded the rat each time it pressed the lever which encouraged it repeat the behaviour. He also conditioned the rat to press a lever to avoid the punishment of electrocution. Moreover, Pavlov classically conditioned a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell by ringing a bell each time he fed the dog. After many repetitions, the dog eventually learnt to associate the bell with food and would salivate at the sound of the bell alone. This is a strength because this research suggests that the behaviourist approach provides an accurate explanation of behaviour.

+ Scientific method

A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence. Behaviourist psychologists believe that only observable behaviour should be studied and therefore use experiments as their main method of investigation. This provides researchers with a rigorous method for understanding the effect of classical and operant conditioning on behaviour. This is a strength of the approach because its assumptions are based on research that establishes cause and effect and is likely to be objective and reliable. The approach has enhanced the scientific status of psychology.

- Favours the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate

A limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it is over-simplistic and favours the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate. Behavioural psychologists believe that behaviour is learned through classical and operant conditioning and they therefore ignore the wealth of evidence that suggests that biological factors also contribute (eg genes and hormones). This is a limitation because it takes a very one sided view on human behaviour and does not provide a holistic explanation. The approach ignores any evidence to suggest that behaviour is caused by nature and many psychologists disagree with this standpoint.

What are the assumptions of the Social Learning Theory

1. Behaviour is learnt through experience

2. We learn through the observation and imitation of others (role models)

3. We learn through reinforcement and punishment that others receive: can be direct and indirect​

4. ​Direct- receive a direct reward for your behaviour​

5. Indirect- where somebody else is rewarded through the behaviour ​

What are the key terms

1. Identification

2. Imitation

3. Modelling

4. Vicarious reinforcement

Define identification

we are more likely to copy/imitate the behaviour of people who have similar characteristics to us, e.g. same gender, ethnicity and age etc

Define imitation

observing a behaviour from a role model and copying it​.

Define modelling

Observing and basing an aspect of our behaviour on a role model - can be a live model (eg parent, teacher, siblings etc) or a symbolic model (eg TV character).

Define vicarious reinforcement

seeking or being rewarded for copying a role models behaviour​

What are Bandura’s mediational processes (hint: ARRM)

Modelling is the act of imitating another person or a group of people’s behaviour. In order for modelling to occur, there must be:

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Motor reproduction

4. Motivation

Define attention

The extent to which we notice certain behaviours​

Define retention

How well the behaviour is remembered.

Define Motor reproduction

The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour ​

Define motivation

The will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished. 

Outline Bandura’s study

Bandura aimed investigate whether children would imitate an aggressive adult model and to discover the extent to which the gender of the model would influence the child’s motivation to imitate. 72 children (36 male and 36 female) with the mean age of just over 4 were used. They observed the behaviour of either a male or female adult where half of the group observed an aggressive role model and the other half observed a non-aggressive role model. In total there was 8 groups. There was also a control group who was not exposed to the model. The aggressive model hit a Bobo doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it whereas the non-aggressive model played with the toys and ignored the Bobo doll. After witnessing the behaviour for about 10 minutes participants were taken down the corridor to another room where they experienced aggression arousal. They were then taken to another room which contained a range of toys including a Bobo doll. Bandura found that children who had observed aggressive behaviour acted more aggressively; boys acted more aggressively than girls and there was also a greater level of imitation of same-sex role models. He concluded that children learn social behaviour such as aggression by observing the behaviours of others and that this is most likely when the behaviour is modelled by someone of the same gender.

What are the evaluation points for Bandura’s study

+ High control

- Low ecological validity

- Unethical

+ High control

A strength of Bandura’s study is that he uses an experimental method and therefore has high control (room filled with toys) and can establish cause and effect. By manipulating the IV (the gender and behaviour of the model), he was able to accurately measure the DV (the effect on the children's behaviour). This is a strength because it allowed Bandura to establish the cause and effect relationship between the observation and imitation of behaviour.

- Low ecological validity

A limitation of Bandura’s study is that it has low ecological validity. The experiment was conducted in an unfamiliar controlled environment (the rooms with toys); there was no interaction between the child and the model, the model and child were strangers to one another. Lastly, the effects of the modelled aggression were measured almost immediately. This is a limitation because these conditions are quite unlikely to happen in real life and this ‘snapshot’ may therefore exaggerate the effects of modelling on behaviour.

- Unethical

A limitation of Bandura’s study is that it can be considered unethical. Bandura manipulated some participants to respond in an aggressive manner and purposely made all of the children experience aggression arousal which could have caused participants to experience psychological harm such as stress. This is a limitation because Bandura’s experiment raises ethical concerns and would not be acceptable under current BPS guideline for ‘protection of participants’.

Outline the SLT

Social Learning Theory was put forward by Bandura and suggests that we learn how to behave by observing the positive and negative consequences of someone else's behaviour (vicarious reinforcement). The theory emphasises the importance of modelling which occurs when an individual observes the behaviour of a role model (e.g. a parent, teacher, or a character on T.V). The reinforcers and punishments the model experiences inform the observer of the likely consequences of their own behaviour and this contributes to their decision to imitate (copy) the model. Bandura suggested that imitation is more likely to happen if the individual identifies with the model (the model is similar to the observer or they wish to be like them) but he also emphasised the importance of mediating processes. By this he was referring to the thought that occurs prior to imitation that intervenes between stimulus and response. There are four mediational processes documented by Bandura: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.

What are the evaluation points of the SLT

+ Supported by research

- Favours the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate

+ Enables us to understand cultural differences in behaviour

+ Acknowledges the role of cognitions in behaviour

+ Supported by research

A strength of Social Learning Theory is that it is supported by evidence. For example Bandura demonstrated that children who observed an aggressive model behaved more aggressively than children who observed a non-aggressive model and there was also a greater level of imitation of same-sex role models. This is a strength because this research suggests that Social Learning Theory provides an accurate explanation of aggression and it also might be able to accurately explain other behaviours

- Favours the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate

A limitation of Social Learning Theory is that it favours only the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate. Bandura suggested that we learn behaviour through observation and vicarious reinforcement and this claim ignores the wealth of evidence that suggests that biological factors also contribute to behaviour (e.g. genes or hormones). This is a limitation as it takes a very one-sided view and Bandura is criticised for ignoring the fact that, in his research, boys were more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics or the experimental setting. These findings suggests that there is a biological component to aggression but Bandura fails to consider this within his theory.

+ Enables us to understand cultural differences in behaviour

A strength of Social Learning Theory is that is enables us to understand cultural differences in behaviour. Social learning principles can help us to understand the diversity of cultural norms across different cultures. The theory helps us to understand how individuals will display different behaviours as a result of being exposed to different models and this can help us to understand how cultural norms are transmitted through a particular society. This is a strength as it enhances our understanding of a number of different behaviours for example, how children acquire their gender role.

+ Acknowledges the role of cognitions in behaviour

A strength of Social Learning Theory is that it acknowledges the role of cognitions in behaviour. Bandura emphasised the role of mediating processes in behaviour and suggested that cognitions intervene between stimulus and response. The implication of this is that there is more than one factor causing behaviour and the individual has at least some control over their actions. This is a strength as it is provides a more holistic and less deterministic view of behaviour than operant or classical conditioning which many psychologists favour.

What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach

1. Thought processes should be studied scientifically i.e. in labs

2. The mind works like a computer (input, process, output)

3. Thought processes between stimulus - response must be acknowledged (criticism of behaviourism)

What are the features of the cognitive approach

1. Study of internal mental processes

2. Schemas

3. Theoretical and computer models

4. Emergence of cognitive nueroscience

What is meant by the study of internal mental processes

The use of lab experiments to develop theories about the mental processes that guides our behaviour. Cognitive psychologists study non empirical thought processes by observing behaviour and making inferences about what is going on in peoples minds.

What is an inference?

Making an assumption about mental processes that cannot be observed directly.

What is meant by schemas?

A schema is a mental framework that incorporates our ideas about a person or situation. They help the brain organise and interpret information and are unique as they are formed through our own experiences. They help us process information quickly by taking shortcuts and predicting what will happen in new situations, allowing us to respond and behave appropriately. People from the same culture have similar schemas due to having a shared experience. Babies are born with innate schemas eg sucking but as we get older, our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated.

What is meant by the use of theoretical and computer models to study internal mental processes?

• Models are theories that can be represented as diagrams and can be used to provide testable hypotheses about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically and inferences made.

• Models are used to describe a behaviour through a series of distinct steps which enables them to test the components individually and examine them in detail.

Give an example of an important theoretical model

Information processing approach

• Suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages like a computer

• Dominated research in the 1980s + still has a strong influence today

what does the computer analogy suggest?

Human mind is like a computer

• Some computational models use the concepts of a central processing unit (brain), coding (to turn information into a usable format) + the use of stores to hold information

• Cognitive psychologists believe human behaviour could also be explained in the same way as computer works - by a series of processing steps.

• The computer analogy has proved useful in the development of artificial intelligence.

  

What is a good example of a computer analogy information processing approach?

Multi Store Model → each store has its own coding and each is connected to the others by cognitive processes e.g retrieval and elaborative rehearsal.

However, there are a number of ways our brains differ from a computer → name some

What are the evaluation points of the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes?

- over-simplistic

- offers a deterministic view of human behaviour

- Over-simplistic

A limitation of the computer analogy is that it can be considered oversimplistic. The analogy attempts to explain behaviour by comparing humans to computers which ignores individual differences and the role of emotion in behaviour. This can be considered ‘machine reductionism’ (The belief that human functions result from specific components or "units" within information-processing systems, like memory stores). This is a limitation because many psychologists believe that explaining behavioural processes in this way overlooks the complexity of human behaviour and does not provide an adequate explanation. Therefore, the computer analogy cannot be a full explanation of human behaviour.

- Offers a deterministic view of human behaviour

A limitation of the computer analogy is that it offers a deterministic view of human behaviour. By comparing people to computers and seeing them as mechanistic, it suggest that humans lack free will to control their own behaviour and thus cannot be held responsible for their own actions. This is a limitation because many psychologists disagree with this view and believe that humans have the ability to use their free will to act in a unique and unpredictable fashion e.g. humanistic psychologists. Therefore the computer analogy is not a full explanation of human behaviours.

What is cognitive neuroscience?

The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes → its main focus is to look for a biological basis to thought and to understand the role of neurons within those processes.

What have advances in brain scanning techniques led to?

Advances in brain scanning techniques over the past 20 years such as fMRI and PET have enabled psychologists to systematically observe + describe the neurological basis of mental processes by studying the living brain → provides detailed information about brain structures involved in different kinds of mental processes + lead to a better understanding of a range of behaviours including psychological disorders

Why do psychologists believe it’s necessary to consider physiological reasons for thought?

It helps them to understand how the brain supports different cognitive activities + emotions by showing what parts become active in specific circumstances.

Cognitive psychologists study many different aspects of human cognition such as the neural processes underlying memory, attention, perception + awareness.

They are also interested in social cognition → The brain regions involved when we interact with others + how impairments in these regions may characterise different psychological conditions.

What two scanning techniques has cognitive neuroscience led to the development of?

1. fMRI

2. PET

What are fMRI scans?

• Brain scanning technique that measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task

• Works on the idea that neurons in the brain that are most active during a task use the most energy

• Increase in blood flow is a response to the need for more oxygen in that area of the brain when it becomes active → suggesting an increase in neural activity.

what are PET scans?

Position emission tomography

• Scans for activity in the brain that shows up due to presence of radio active glucose molecule tracer → glucose is a source of energy for any part of the body including the brain

• Wherever energy is being used, these tracers will build up → showing up on the scan as a bright colour

• Activity is then analysed by a computer to build up a overall picture

what are the evaluation points for cognitive neuroscience?

+ use of PET scans to test LTM

- Practical applications can be controversial

+ Use of PET scans to test LTM

A strength of cognitive neuroscience is the use of PET scans to test LTM. For example, Tulving et al conducted a lab experiment in which their ppts did different memory tasks and used a PET scan to determine which parts of the brain they were using. Tasks that used semantic memory used the left side of the prefrontal cortex and those that used episodic memory used the right side of the prefrontal cortex. This is evidence that episodic memory and semantic memory are two separate stores in LTM because they are controlled by different parts of the brain. Therefore the PET scan was able to provide evidence for Tulving’s model of different types of LTM.

- Practical applications can be controversial

A limitation of cognitive neuroscience is that practical applications can be controversial. Brain fingerprinting, which uses EEG to measure brain activity and determine if specific information is stored in someone's memory, was first applied in 1999. In this case, James Grinder initially confessed to a murder from 15 years prior but later retracted his confession. The police were struggling to incriminate Grinder because of the evidence being old so the police turned to Dr Lawrence Farwell, the inventor of brain fingerprinting. After taking the test, Grinder confessed to the murder of Julie Helton and three other murders as well. This is a limitation because it could lead to an overreliance on science without human scrutiny and lead to wrongful convictions.

What are the evaluation points for the cognitive approach?

+ Successful treatment

+ Assumptions stem from research that mostly uses human ppts

+ Uses scientific method when investigating human behaviour + the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence

- Based on research that may be low in ecological validity

+ Successful treatment → CBT

A strength of the cognitive approach is that it has produced a successful treatment. For example, CBT aims to identify and challenge maladaptive thoughts and to alter dysfunctional behaviours. This treatment has been found to be effective for treating a range of psychological abnormalities e.g. Holon et al (2006) found that fewer depressed patients relapse after 12 weeks of CBT (40%) than those taking drugs (45%). This is a strength because it demonstrates the contribution that the cognitive approach has made to psychology and, as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, its effectiveness suggests that the approach must have some validity and merit. Therefore, giving the approach practical applications.

+ Assumption stems from research that mostly uses human ppts

A strength of the cognitive approach is that the assumptions stem from research that mostly uses human participants. This is different to the behaviourist and biological approach whose research often studies animals. This is a strength because it is possible to generalise the results from such research to human behaviour. Therefore, this suggests that the cognitive approach might provide a more valid explanation of human behaviour than the other approaches

+ Uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour + assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence.

A strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence. The approach uses experiments as its main method of investigation which provides researchers with a rigorous method for understanding how the mind works → Peterson and Peterson conducted a lab experiment to test the duration of short-term memory by asking participants to recall trigrams after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds in controlled conditions. This is strength because the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes cause and effect and is likely to be objective and reliable. Therefore, this approach has enhanced the scientific status of psychology and has led to scientific progress within the discipline

- Based on research that may be low in ecological validity

A limitation of the cognitive approach is that it is based on research that may be low in ecological validity. Many studies of cognitive psychology tend to use tasks that do not reflect ppts natural everyday experiences e.g. Baddeley’s experiment into the encoding of LTM asking ppts to recall 10 words they had heard in correct order. Such experiments use artificial test materials that are relatively meaningless in everyday life. This is a limitation because, as this research is unlikely to reflect the ppts genuine behaviour, the assumptions of the approach might not be valid and may not adequately explain the complexities of real life behaviour.

What does the biological approach believe about behaviour?

It’s rooted in the physiology + biology of the body → approach examines the biological processes that occur + looks at how that may affect an individual

What are the assumptions of the biological approach?

1. Genetics - the genes an individual possesses influences his/her behaviour

2. Evolution - Behaviour evolves in the same way as physical characteristics through the process of evolutionary adaptation → biopsychologists believe that examination of non-human behaviour is useful because humans and animals have evolved through the same process.

3. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) - The brain is seen as the main focus when explaining behaviour as it is seen to be the origin of how the world is seen and acted upon by an individual.

4. Biochemistry - Varying levels of chemicals found in both the brain (neurotransmitters) and the body (hormones) are thought by biological psychologists to be related to an individual's behaviour → believed to influence reactions to the environment.

What is hereditary?

The process where characteristics are passed from one generation to the next through genes which carry the coding for a particular trait. Biological psychologists believe that behavioural characteristics such as intelligence and personality are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics such as height and eye colour → behaviours including physiological disorders may be inherited from one or both biological parents as all individuals share 50% of their genes with each parent

Outline the genetic basis of behaviour

Each individual is born with 23 pairs of chromosomes that have been inherited from their biological parents → forms basis of development (genotype). Each individual possesses a unique combination of genetic instructions, making them differ from others in terms of personality, intelligence etc.

Why do biopsychologists use twin and adoption studies?

To establish if genes underpin certain behaviours.

Define concordance rate

The extent to which both twins share the same characteristics.

What happens in twin studies?

• Compare pairs of monozygotic (identical) + dizygotic (non-identical) → MZ are 100% genetically identical + DZ are 50% genetically similar.

• Concordance rate is calculated + compared → indicates how much the behaviour is genetic.

• If shared behaviour is more likely in MZ twins, then its argued that behaviour has a genetic component.

What are the concordance rates for MZ + DZ for these studies?

What are adoption studies and what is the purpose of them?

• Examine concordance rates for a behaviour between an adoptive child + their biological parent

• Children share 50% of their genes with each biological parent but 0% with adoptive parent → if there’s a high concordance rate between biological parent + child then behaviour must be genetic as it’s not possible that the child has learned the behaviour from their biological parent as they weren’t brought up by them.

What is a genotype?

An individual’s genetic makeup → occurs at conception + provides genetic code for how that individual will develop - dictates characteristics like eye and hair colour. Each individual has a genotype which is unique to them (apart from identical twins).

What is a phenotype?

Expression of an individual’s genetic makeup (inheritance) that can be influenced by the environment → with a physical characteristic eg height, the genotype dictates the potential height they can reach, but environmental factors will affect how likely the person is to achieve that potential.

Why do biopsychologists believe that physical characteristics + behaviour evolve in humans?

Individuals within a species naturally differ from each other + at least some of this variation is inherited → as members of the same species must compete with each other for access to resources e.g. mates + food + those who survive this competition go on to reproduce + pass on their genes.

This theory of natural selection provides the basis for what concept?

The concept that any genetically determined behaviour is the result of an individual drive to survive → means that certain behavioural characteristics that are genetically coded for in these individuals will be passed on to future generation - traits will become prevalent.

Explain the process of natural selection

• Initially, there is a random change (mutation) in the genetic make-up of an individual which leads to a trait occurring (this could be physical or behavioural)

• If this change increases the survival/chance of reproduction of the individual, then they are more likely to mate and pass on the version of the gene that codes for this trait

• This trait will therefore continue to be passed on to future generations and will eventually become a prevalent trait within the human race

Give 3 examples of human behaviour that may have resulted from evolution

1. Maternal love → form of parental investment that is an evolved behaviour in humans as it is a powerful emotion that increases the chances of a woman's offspring surviving + therefore the chances of genes being passed on to a future generation - adaptive.

2. Mate Preferences (who you want to form an 'intimate relationship' with)→ evolved behaviour as they are adaptive - males prefer women who display characteristics of fertility so she is more likely to be able to give birth + females prefer characteristics in men that display status because this increases the chances of a male being able to provide resources to increase the chance of the survival of potential offspring.

3. Aggression → assumed to have evolved in animals as it is widespread across species - believed to be adaptive as it can improve survival rates and increase access to resources + helps to protect territory. This can mean that an aggressive individual becomes more attractive to potential mates and this increases their chance of reproduction.

What is neurochemistry?

Biochemistry of the central nervous system → in the brain, transmission of chemicals is via the cerebral fluid through chemicals that include neurotransmitters.

What are neurotransmitters and why are they important?

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that help to send messages from one area of the brain to another.

They are seen to be very important as they are thought to affect behaviour → When a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron, a neurotransmitter is released which then travels from one neuron to the next across a junction called a synapse.

What are the different types of neurotransmitters and what do they do?

1. Excitatory

• Trigger the receiving neuron to send an impulse + stimulate the brain into action

• Example - dopamine : high levels are related to schizophrenia

  2. Inhibitory

• Inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain + balance a person’s mood

• Example - serotonin : low levels are related to depression as they elevate mood

What are the evaluation points for the Biological approach?

+ Successful treatment

+ Uses Scientific methods when investigating human behaviour and assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence

- Partially based on experiments that use non-human animals

- Over-simplistic - takes the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate

+ Successful treatment

A strength of the biological approach is that it has produced a successful treatment. For example, the biological approach has successfully created drugs such as anti-depressants and anti-anxiety drugs. Such treatment has been found to be effective for treating a range of psychological abnormalities e.g. Soomro et al found that SSRIs showed significantly better results than a placebo for reducing depressive symptoms. This is a strength because it demonstrates the contribution that the biological approach has made to psychology and as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, its effectiveness suggests that the approach must have some validity.

+ Uses scientific methods when investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence

A strength of the biological approach is that it uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence. The approach uses experiments as its main method of investigation and also adopts techniques that are largely objective such as brain scans → use of such sophisticated imaging has increased the precision and objectivity of research in this area. This is a strength because the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes cause and effect and is likely to be objective and reliable. The approach has therefore enhanced the scientific status of psychology and has led to scientific progress within the discipline.

- Partially based on experiments that use non-human animals

A limitation of the biological approach is that is is partially based on experiments that use non-human animals. Biological psychologists regularly use animals such as rats and mice within their research as they are easy to control and manipulate and such experiment can establish cause and effect. This is a limitation because such research might not provide a valid explanation for human behaviour as culture, emotion and cognitions play a much greater role. The biological approach therefore might not provide an accurate explanation of human behaviour.

- Over-simplistic - takes the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate

A limitation of the biological approach is that it is over-simplistic as it takes the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate. Biological psychologists believe that behaviour is caused solely by biological factors e.g. genes and neurochemistry and they therefore ignore the wealth of evidence that suggests that environmental factors also contribute (e.g. the effects of operant and classical conditioning). This is a limitation as it takes a very one-sided view of human behaviour ignores any evidence to suggest that behaviour is caused by nurture. Many psychologists therefore disagree with this standpoint.

What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

1. The driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind.

2. Instincts or drives motivate our behaviour + aggressive instincts are present at birth.

3. Early childhood experiences determine our personality + adult behaviour.

4. Psychoanalysis should be used to make the unconscious conscious.

Briefly explain the beliefs of the psychodynamic approach

Emphasise the psychodynamics of the mind → the different forces that operate in the mind, and at times, cause inner mental conflict and cause problems for the person. Freud believed that the unconscious mind influenced much of our behaviour.

What is the role of the unconscious mind?

Large parts of our mental life operates at an unconscious level → we have thoughts + ideas that we are not directly aware of.

How can the iceberg analogy help us to understand the psychodynamic definition of the unconscious mind?

Tip of the iceberg (above the surface of the water) = conscious mind → directly aware of

Below the surface of the water = unconscious mind → no clear way of being aware of what lies beneath the ‘water’.

Unconscious mind has a greater influence than the conscious mind.

What is the conscious mind?

The part of our mind that we can access.

What is the unconscious mind?

• The part of our mind that is not accessible to the individual.

• It holds thoughts that will not easily surface (+ may never do).

• The driving/motivating force behind our behaviour/personality is stored here → (the drives that motivate our behaviour are stored here.)

• Holds traumatic + very unpleasant memories which drive our behaviours → protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict.