BehSci110 GR 2

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together

conditioning

the process of learning associations

classical conditioning

learning to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant conditioning

learning to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence

operant behaviors

behaviors that operate on the environment, producing consequence

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes (inner thoughts, feelings, and motives)

Ivan Pavlov

1849-1936, initial plan was to become a Russian Orthodox priest, medical degree and studied dog’s digestive systems (Nobel Prize), father of classical conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response (i.e. food in mouth)

unconditioned response (UR)

an unlearned, naturally occurring response (i.e. salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (i.e. food)

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (i.e. tone)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response (i.e. tone that now triggers salivation)

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (i.e. salivation in response to tone)

acquisition

when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus, so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response, initial stage of learning in classical conditioning

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response (CR)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response (CR)

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

B.F. Skinner

college English major, aspiring writer, most influential and controversial figure in modern behaviorism, elaborated on Thorndike’s law of effect, designed operant chamber

Thorndike’s law of effect

behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber/Skinner box

a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer/secondary reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing powers through its association with a primary reinforcer

reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules

reinforcing a response only part of the time, results in slower acquisition of a response and greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

negative reinforcement

stopping/reducing aversive stimulus after a response, increases behavior

positive punishment

administer an eversive stimulus

negative punishment

withdraw a rewarding stimulus

observational learning

learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brains mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

prosocial behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

memory

learning that persists over time through recognition, recall, and relearning

recognition

identifying items previously learned, i.e. multiple choice questions

recall

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time, i.e. fill-in-the-blank questions

relearning

learning something quicker when you learn it a second or later time, i.e. reviewing material from earlier in the course before the exam, it will be easier to learn

information processing model

human memory is like a computer

encode

get information into our brain

store

retain information

retrieve

later get information back out

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

connectionism model

views memories as products of interconnected neural networks, specific memories come from particular activation patterns within these networks, neuroplasticity forms and strengthens pathways that interact and learn from the changing environment

3-stage model

we first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory, from there we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal, finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval

updated 3-stage model

includes working memory and automatic processing

working memory

the scratch pad where our brain makes sense of new experiences and links them with long-term memories

explicit memory/declarative memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare

implicit memory/nondeclarative memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information like space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information like sound, smells, and word meanings

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few-tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar manageable units, often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

hierarchies

organizing information composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study practice

testing effect/retrieval practice effect/test-enhanced learning

retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning, enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of the

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words, tends to yield the best retention

proactive interference

forward acting, prior learning disrupts your recall of new information

retroactive interference

backwards acting, when new learning disrupts your recall of old information

repression

psychoanalytic theory that the brain banishes from consciousness anxiety, arousing thoughts, feelings and memories as a defense mechanism

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

source amnesia

source misattribution, faulty memory of how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

deja vu

familiarity with stimulus (frontal lobe) + uncertainty about source (hippocampus and frontal lobe)

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

metacognition

cognition about our cognition, keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes

concepts

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that simplify our thinking

prototypes

mental images of best examples of a category

algorithms

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving particular problems

heuristics

simple think strategy, mental shortcut that often allow us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution, contrasts strategy-based solutions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, an obstacle to problem solving

intuition

effortless, immediate, automatic feel or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgements

belief perserverance

our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

framing

the way that we present an issue

nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another

attribution theory

we can explain someone’s behavior as a result of the person’s stable enduring traits (dispositional) or we can attribute it to the situation (situational)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behaviors, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

cognitive dissonance theory

we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when our thoughts are inconsistent

peripheral route persuasion

uses attention-getting cues to trigger speedy, emotion-based judgements

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

normative social influence

influence, resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

information social influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality