Unit 2 AP GOV

pork barrel spending

legislation in appropriations bills that funds projects within districts or states. (p. 108)

logrolling

combining several different bills into a single bill to get enough votes for the legislation to pass. (p. 108)

oversight

the power of Congress to review and investigate actions by executive branch agencies, bureaus, and cabinet departments, as well as their officials, to ensure that they are acting legally and in accordance with congressional goals. (p. 108)

constituency

citizens in a district or state who elect a representative or a senator. (p. 111)

apportionment

the process that occurs every ten years after the census of determining the number of representatives for each state using census data. (p. 111)

redistricting

states’ redrawing of boundaries of electoral districts following each census. (p. 112)

malapportionment

the uneven distribution of the population among legislative districts. (p. 113)

gerrymandering

the intentional use of redistricting to benefit a specific group, usually a political party. (p. 114)

majority-minority group

district in which voters of a minority race or ethnicity constitute an electoral majority within that electoral district. (p. 115)

incumbency

being already in office when running for reelection. (p. 116)

incumbency advantage

institutional advantages held by those already in office who are trying to fend off challengers in an election. (p. 117)

Speaker of the House

the leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by the majority party. (p. 120)

political action committee (PAC)

an organization that raises money for candidates and campaigns. (p. 120)

House majority leader

the person who is the second in command of the House of Representatives. (p. 120)

whip

a member of Congress, chosen by their party members, whose job is to ensure party unity and discipline. (p. 120)

minority leader

the head of the party with the second-highest number of seats in Congress, chosen by the party’s members. (p. 121)

Senate majority leader

the person who has the most power in the Senate and is the head of the party with the most seats. (p. 121)

committee chair

leader of a congressional committee who has authority over the committee’s agenda. (p. 121)

discharge petition

a motion filed by a member of Congress to move a bill out of committee and onto the floor of the House of Representatives for debate. (p. 126)

House Rules Committee

a powerful committee that determines when a bill will be subject to debate and vote on the House floor, how long the debate will last, and whether amendments will be allowed on the floor. (p. 127)

Committee of the Whole

Consists of all members of the House and meets in the House chamber but is governed by different rules that make it easier and faster to debate a piece of legislation. (p. 127)

hold

a delay placed on legislation by a senator who objects to a bill. (p. 128)

unanimous consent agreement

an agreement in the Senate that sets the terms for consideration of a bill to prevent it from getting to the floor for a vote. (p. 128)

filibuster

a tactic through which an individual senator may use the right of unlimited debate to delay a motion or postpone action on a piece of legislation. (p. 128)

cloture

a procedure through which senators can end a filibuster and proceed to a vote, provided that sixty senators agree to it. (p. 128)

entitlement program

a program that provides benefits for those who qualify under the law, regardless of income. (p. 131)

mandatory spending

spending required by existing laws that is “locked in” the budget. (p. 131)

discretionary spending

spending for programs and policies at the discretion of Congress and the president. (p. 131)

budget surplus

the amount of money remaining when the government takes in more than it spends. (p. 132)

budget deficit

the annual shortfall when a government takes in less money than it spends. (p. 132)

national debt

the total amount of money owed by the federal government. (p. 132)

delegate role

the idea that the main duty of a member of Congress is to vote according to their constituents’ wishes. (p. 135)

trustee role

the idea that members of Congress should make decisions based on their own knowledge and judgment. (p. 135)

politico role

representation where members of Congress balance their choices with the interests of their constituents and parties in making decisions. (p. 135)

bipartisanship

agreement between the parties to work together in Congress to pass legislation. (p. 140)

gridlock

a slowdown or halt in Congress’s ability to legislate and overcome divisions, especially those based on partisanship. (p. 140)

divided government

control of the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress split between the two major parties. (p. 140)

lame duck period

period at the end of a presidential term when Congress may block presidential initiatives and nominees. (p. 140)

executive branch

the branch of government charged with putting the nation’s laws into effect. (p. 152)

formal (or enumerated) powers

powers expressly granted in the Constitution. (p. 154)

informal powers

powers not laid out in the Constitution but used to carry out presidential duties. (p. 154)

presidential pardon

presidential authority to release individuals convicted of a crime from legal consequences and to set aside punishment for a crime. (p. 154)

executive privilege

a right claimed by presidents to keep certain conversations, records, and transcripts confidential from outside scrutiny, especially scrutiny by Congress. (p. 155)

executive agreement

an agreement between a president and another nation that does not have the same durability as a treaty but does not require Senate ratification. (p. 155)

signing statement

written comments issued by presidents while signing a bill into law that usually consist of political statements or reasons for signing the bill but that may also include a president’s interpretation of the law itself. (p. 155)

executive order

the informal power of the president to issue policy directives that do not require congressional approval. (p. 156)

treaty

 an agreement with a foreign government negotiated by the president and requiring a two-thirds vote in the Senate to ratify. (p. 161)

State of the Union Address

the annual speech given by the president to Congress on the state of national affairs. (p. 162)

veto

constitutional formal presidential power to reject a bill that has passed both houses of Congress. (p. 162)

pocket veto

an informal veto that occurs when the president chooses not to sign a bill within ten days, during a time when Congress has adjourned at the end of a session. (p. 162)

impeachment

the process of removing a president or other officeholder from office; articles of impeachment of a federal officeholder are issued by a majority vote in the House of Representatives, followed by a trial in the Senate, with a two-thirds vote necessary to convict and remove. (p. 166)

Executive Office of the President

a collection of offices within the White House organization designed mainly to provide information to the president. (p. 170)

bargaining and persuasion

an informal tool used by the president to persuade members of Congress to support the administration’s policy initiatives. (p. 171)

bully pulpit

presidential appeals to the public to pressure other branches of government to support the president’s policies. (p. 172)

federal judiciary

the branch of the federal government that interprets the laws of the nation. (p. 187)

Supreme Court

the highest level of the federal judiciary, which was established in Article III of the Constitution and serves as the highest court in the nation. (p. 187)

original jurisdiction

the authority of a court to hear a case first, which includes the finding of facts in the case. (p. 187)

appellate jurisdiction

the authority of a court to hear and review decisions made by lower courts in that system. (p. 187)

Federalist No. 78

essay by Alexander Hamilton that the federal judiciary would be unlikely to infringe upon rights and liberties but would serve as a check on the other two branches. (p. 188)

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

the Supreme Court decision that established judicial review over federal laws. (p. 194)

judicial review

the authority of the Supreme Court to strike down a law or an executive action if it conflicts with the Constitution. (p. 195)

federal district courts

the lowest level of the federal judiciary; these courts usually have original jurisdiction in cases that start at the federal level. (p. 197)

federal courts of appeals

the middle level of the federal judiciary; these courts review and hear appeals from the federal district courts. (p. 197)

precedent

a judicial decision that guides future courts in handling similar cases. (p. 200)

stare decisis

letting a previous decision stand. (p. 200)

majority opinion

a binding Supreme Court opinion, which serves as precedent for future cases. (p. 201)

concurring opinion

an opinion that agrees with the majority decision but offers different or additional reasoning and does not serve as precedent. (p. 201)

dissenting opinion

an opinion that disagrees with the majority opinion and does not serve as precedent. (p. 201)

judicial restraint

a philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should be cautious in overturning laws and should adhere to the Constitution and case precedent. (p. 203)

judicial activism

a philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should wield the power of judicial review, sometimes creating bold new policies. (p. 203)

federal bureaucracy

the departments and agencies within the executive branch that carry out the laws of the nation. (p. 214)

bureaucrat

an official employed within a government entity. (p. 216)

political patronage

filling of administrative positions as a reward for support rather than merit. (p. 218)

federal civil service

the merit-based bureaucracy, excluding the armed forces and political appointments. (p. 219)

merit system

a system of hiring and promotion based on competitive testing results, education, and other qualifications rather than politics and personal connections. (p. 219)

iron triangle

a mutually beneficial association of congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups in specific policy areas. (p. 222)

issue network

a temporary coalition formed to address a specific policy (p. 223)

implementation

the bureaucracy’s role in putting into action the laws that Congress has passed. (p. 225)

bureaucratic discretion

the power to create and enforce policies and decide what Congress meant when it passed a law. (p. 226)

regulation

the process through which the federal bureaucracy makes rules that have the force of law, in order to carry out the laws passed by Congress. (p. 226)

Compliance monitoring

ensuring that the bureaucracy is following regulations and using funds wisely (p. 230).

writ of certiorari

an order from a higher court, typically the U.S. Supreme Court, to a lower court to send up the records of a case for review

amicus curiae brief

a document submitted to a court by a person or group not directly involved in a case, offering expertise or a perspective to help the court understand complex issues and influence its decision (friend of the court)

Rule of 4

an informal Supreme Court procedure requiring at least 4 of the 9 justices to vote in favor of a case for it to be heard by the full Court, then they will issue a writ of certiorari if 4 justices agree 

12th Amendment

requires separate Electoral College votes for President and Vice President.

22nd Amendment

limits a president to two terms in office.

23rd Amendment

grants the District of Columbia electoral votes in presidential elections

25th Amendment

establishes procedures for presidential disability and succession, including the process for appointing a new Vice President

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

collection of offices and agencies that serve as the president's inner staff and support system

Council of Economic

To provide objective economic analysis and policy recommendations based on data and research. The CEA prepares the annual Economic Report of the President.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

The largest component of the EOP, responsible for assisting the president in preparing the federal budget.

National Security Council (NSC)

An advisory body that assists the president on national security, military, and foreign policy matters

What is the constitutional question for Baker V. Carr?

1. Does the federal judiciary have jurisdiction over questions of redistricting? 

2. Did unequally represented districts violate the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment? 

What is the constitutional question for Shaw V. Reno?

 Does North Carolina’s congressional redistricting plan, which created a majority-minority district with an unusually shaped, racially divided design, violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment?

What are the constitutional questions for Marbury V. Madison?

1. Does Marbury have the legal right to his commission?

2. If so, is a court-ordered writ of mandamus the proper legal means to get the commission?

3. If so, does the Supreme Court have the authority to grant the writ of mandamus?
   

Facts for Marbury V. Madison

William Marbury had been appointed justice of the peace in the final hours of the Adams administration. His commission wasn’t delivered before Jefferson took office, and Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison, refused to deliver it. Marbury petitioned the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus to force delivery.

Facts for Shaw V. Reno

North Carolina submitted a redistricting plan with one majority-Black district. The Justice Department said it needed another. The revised plan created a bizarrely shaped district, stretching for 160 miles, which seemed to be drawn only based on race. White voters challenged it.

Facts for Baker V. Carr

Charles Baker and other Tennessee residents argued that the state’s legislative districts had not been redrawn since 1901, despite massive population shifts. This meant some districts had far more people than others, yet still had the same number of representatives.

Baker V. Carr Constitutional Principle at Stake

Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment; the question of whether federal courts could review and decide redistricting issues.

Shaw V. Reno Constitutional Principle at Stake

Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment; racial gerrymandering.