psych - memory test + validation

What is forgetting?

The inability to retrieve memories

What are the types of forgetting?

• Retrieval failure

• Interference - proactive and retroactive

• Motivated forgetting

• Decay theory

What is retrieval failure

The inability to consciously recall information stored in the long-term memory, due to an absence of retrieval cues

Theory proposed by Endel Tulving (Tulving & Tomson, 1973) and tries to explain why we are sometimes unable to remember material that we are certain is in our memory.

What are retrieval cues

Mental reminders or prompts that we create to assist our recollection later.

May be created deliberately or implicitly (or both)

Can come in a range of formats, including context-dependent where (environment) the memory was encoded, and, the smell, taste, and sounds associated with the memory

What is interference and the two types?

When information in the long-term store cannot be retrieved due to it being disrupted by similar information

Proactive and retroactive inteference

What is proactive interference?

When old information moves forward and interferes with our retrieval of newer but similar information

What is retroactive interference?

When new information interferes with the retrieval of older information stored in the LTM

Effect of similarity on retrieval

Interference is likely to be most pronounced when the two sets of material are very similar

Shown in McGeoch and McDonald where participants memorised words - found that the amount of information forgotten from the original list increased as similarity increased.

What is motivated forgetting?

The intentional or unintentional suppression of memories or thoughts from conscious awareness to minimise emotional distress

Categories of motivated forgetting perform the same goal of forgetting memories to reduce anxiety

What is psychological repression?

Involuntary and subconscious process where memories are forgotten

What is thought suppression?

Deliberate and conscious effort to push certain thoughts and memories out of one’s conscious awareness - e.g. traumatic event

What is decay theory?

Suggests that memories fade over time and acknowledges that decay alone does not cause forgetting (additional process involved)

According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, information is transferred between memory stores and memory traces are left behind.

These traces disappear rapidly unless information is used quickly or actively rehearsed.

What is remembering?

The process of consciously (STM via retrieval) recalling or becoming aware of past experiences, information, or events.

What are the three methods of retrieval?

Recall, recognition, and relearning

What is recall?

Retrieving information from the LTM with minimal or no cues

Cues - stimulus that helps us retrieve memories

What are the three subtypes of recall - explain?

1. Free recall: retrieval of as much information as one can remember - no cues

2. Serial recall: retrieval of information in an order (series)

3. Cued recall: retrieval is assisted via cues

What is recognition?

Identifying wanted/correct information from a list that also includes unwanted/incorrect information

Yields more remembering than recall and is generally more accurate

Cued recall and recognition are confused: hints vs full answer

What is relearning?

Involves learning something that you have previously already learnt (committed to memory - especially with procedural memory)

Quicker learning the second time (due to savings score)

It is the most sensitive/successful method of retrieval

What is a sensitive task?

A more sensitive measure will register that a memory is present - even if only small amount of memory remains.

A less sensitive measure will only register that a memory is present when a large proportion of it remains.

What is the levels of processing model of memory, (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)?

Craik and Lockhart (1972) state that the strength and endurance of LT memories depend on the depth of cognitive processing

It is one explanation for why elaborative rehearsal more successfully transfers information from the ST store to the LT store (comparing to maintenance rehearsal)

Depth: meaning derived from stimuli

What are the two depths of processing?

Shallow and deep

However there is also moderate

What is Shallow processing?

Encodes physical information based on appearance; Involves structural and phonemic rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal is used (to hold information for longer than 15-30 seconds in STM)

Shallow:

Structural: processing using physical appearance of the word

E.g.: pOTato, Brick, BOOK, Apple

20% recall

Shallow/moderate:

Phonemic: processing based on verbal sounds relating to a word

E.g.: bull, style, amazing, radio

50% recall

What is deep processing?

Semantically encodes/processes words by attaching meaning to them

Elaborative rehearsal is used

More success using deep processing comparing to shallow processing - as it links to information already in the LTM

Explain the Study: depths of processing

Craik and Tulving (1975) created a study: Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory

What is the aim of the study?

To determine the impact the levels of processing have on the recall of memory

Briefly explain the method of the study

Participants: 60 male and female students recruited via convenience sampling (University of Toronto)

Materials: list of 60 words, a set of questions, and second list of 180 words

Design:
IV: type of encoding (structural, phonemic, semantic)

DV: number of words recalled

Briefly explain the procedure of the study:

1. Participants choose to take part in a study on perception (deception applied) and are randomly allocated into 1 of 3 conditions. All given a list of 60 words with corresponding questions

2. Questions are designed to fit either structural, phonemic, or semantic encoding, e.g. capital or lowercase, rhyming, and context in a sentence

3. Participants are then given a list of 180 words (no questions) and asked to recognise what words were on the list

Key findings of study?

• Participants in the semantic encoding condition recalled a higher percentage of words than the participants in the structural and phonemic conditions

  • as semantic condition required deep processing (the structural/phonemic condition required shallow processing)

• Percentage of recall:

  • Semantic: 80%

  • Phonemic: 50%

  • Structural: 20%

Contributions of study to psychology?

• Provided empirical evidence which aspired further studies of a similar nature

  • The results were similar each time the study was repeated, therefore high in reliability

Criticisms/limitations of the study?

• Ethical guideline of debriefing was violated (no evidence supporting that it wasn’t)

• Unclear whether it was the depth of processing or time/effort that produced the results.

What are the two types of rehearsal strategies?

Maintenance and elaborative rehearsal

Rehearsal increases the time information is held within the STM store, providing the time needed for encoding to operate

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A strategy that keeps the information in our STM for longer than it’s 15-30 second duration

Occurs through repeating the information over and over - no meaning is added

Unlikely that information rehearsed will become encoded in the LTM store.

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A strategy that involves attaching meaning to information that the person wants to encode in their LTM

Successful encoding involves linking the new information with information already stored in the LTM - providing extra links to info in LTM

Due to making the information meaningful, we can create cues to later help retrieve this information from the LTM.

What is the role of repetition (Ebbinghaus 1885, forgetting curve)

Ebbinghaus (1885) results show that after learning, forgetting occurs rapidly for 20 minutes after, moderately for the remaining hour, and then gradually for 31 days

If the material is repeated/over-learnt it will be retained for longer

*Supports the decay theory

What is memory loss?

Any impairment in the ability to encode, retain, or retrieve information or experiences

What is CTE?

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: progressive brain disease associated with repeated traumatic brain injuries that causes problems with cognition and memory.

Commonly associated with military combat due to exposure to explosive blasts, and sports, such as boxing, ice hockey, and rugby.

The degeneration of brain cells caused by CTE is thought to be related to the development of memory problems.

CTE’s impact on behaviour and emotion:

Behaviour:

• Impulsive

• Confusion (due to memory loss)

• slurred speech

Emotion:

• Symptoms of depression

• Outbursts of anger

• emotional instability (intense mood swings)

What is alzeihmer’s disease (AD)?

A brain disease that involves the degeneration of neurons in regions of the brain that are involved in cognitive skills, and memory formation + retrieval

Most common form of dementia

Degeneration is more prevalent in the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebral cortex - all associated with memory, reasoning, and language processing.

What is the cause of AD (1-2) marks?

Neuron degeneration

What is the cause of AD (4-5) marks?

Neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid plaques and neuron loss.

Tau is a type of protein mainly found in the axon of dendrites of neurons which clumps together, breaking down the microtubule structure that supports the axon. This prevents normal neural transmission

Another protein, beta-amyloid is found in abnormally high levels of people with AD. They clump together between neurons and interrupt their functioning

What are the behavioural and emotional impacts of AD?

Behaviour:

• Lost/disoriented

• Habits may change

• increasing in outgoing personality

Emotion:

• Fearful/suspicious

• anxious

• abrupt mood changes

What is Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome (WKS) ?

A neurological disorder caused by a thiamine (Vitamin b1) deficiency

Leads to the degeneration of brain cells and is characterised by difficulties in forming new memories and retrieving stored memories

Degeneration of brain cells occurs in the thalamus, hypothalamus, and mamillary bodies

Chronic alcohol abuse (drug-induced) leads to a thiamine deficiency, then develops into WKS

What are the two stages of WKS?

Wernicke encephalopathy: severe yet reversible

Korsakoff Amnesic syndrome: chronic and irreversible

What are WKS impacts on behaviour and emotion?

Behaviour:

• Ataxia (involuntary and rapid eye movements, slurred speech, poor coordination + balance)

• Confabulation (stories to fill gaps)

• Repeat same questions + stories

Emotion:

• Frustrated

• Apathy

• Anxious