Cognition Test

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91 Terms

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Selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

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Inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

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Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the enviornment

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Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive things one way and not another

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Gestalt

an organized whole of pieces of information

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Figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

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Grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

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Depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions; allows us to judge distance

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Visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

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Binocular cues

a depth cue that depends on the use of both eyes

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Convergence

a cue to a nearby object’s distance enabled by the inward angle of the eyes

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Retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the greater the disparity between two images, the closer the object

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Monocular cue

a depth cue available to either eye alone

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Stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images

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Phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession

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Autokinetic effect

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room

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Perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

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Color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if the changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

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Perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust changed sensory input

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Cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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Metacognition

cognition about our cognition; thinking about thinking

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Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

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Creativity

the ability to produce new and novel ideas

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Convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

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Divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

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Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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Assimilation

interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

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Accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

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Executive functioning

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

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Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

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Heuristics

a mental shortcut that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

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Insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution

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Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

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Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought

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Representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

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Availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

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Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

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Belief perserverance

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after they’ve been discredited

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Framing

the way an issue is posed

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Nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

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Memory

the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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Recall

a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank question

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Recognition

a measure of memory in which a person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice question

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Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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Encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

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Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

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Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

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Parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

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Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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Short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten

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Long-term memory

the relatively permanent, limitless archive of the memory system

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Working memory

conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory

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Central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

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Phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information

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Visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds visual information

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Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

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Long-term potentation

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

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Explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”

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Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental (space, time) and familiar information (sounds, smells, words)

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Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or conditioned associations without conscious awareness

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Iconic memory

a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

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Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

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Mnemonics

memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study/practice to lead to better long-term retention

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Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than rereading information

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Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

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Deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words

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Semantic memory

explicit memories of facts and general knowledge

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Episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

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Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

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Memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

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Flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of associations in memory

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Encoding specificity

the idea that cues and context specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

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Mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

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Serial position effect

our tendency to best recall the last items in a list initially (recency effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (primacy effect)

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Interleaving

a retrieval strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

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Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

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Retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past

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Proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

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Retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

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Repression

the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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Reconsolidation

a process by which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

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Misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

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Source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

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Deja vu

that eerie sense of having experienced something before caused by cues from the current situation that may unconsciously trigger the retrieval of an earlier experience